NOTES OF LESSONS
ON THE
;RBARTIAN METHOD
NOTES OF LESSONS
THE HERBARTIAN METHOD
AMERICAN TEACHERS SERIES.
Edited by JAMKS E. RUSSELL, Ph.D., Dean of Teachers College, Columbia University, N.Y.
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NOTES OF LESSONS
ON THE
HERBARTIAN METHOD
(BASED ON HERBART'S PLAN)
BY
M. FENNELL
AND
MEMBERS OF A TEACHING STAFF
WITH A PREFACE BY
M. FENNELL
LECTURER ON EDUCATION
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
1910
PREFACE.
THE main idea in the Herbartian system of psychology is that the mind is built up of its own contents. Herbart> following Locke, not only denies the existence of " innate ideas," but puts contemptuously aside the doctrine of inborn faculties or capacities for acquiring knowledge. According to him, and others of his school, the mind possesses but one single original power : that of entering into relation with externals. Given this power, the mind at certain points of contact receives into itself " presentations " (sense percepts), each reception causing growth or, as he would put it, "widening the circle of thought ". But these mental contents are not often merely passive, they most frequently become " presen- tative activities," their force and suggestiveness being increased every time one returns to the surface of con- sciousness. By a process of selection and assimilation new " presentations " are joined to old, while the earliest and most simple by their interaction produce others of varying complexity.
When a child comes for the first time to a teacher a certain number of these "presentations," with more or less cohesion among themselves, are already to be counted as its mental furniture and equipment, having entered partly by way of experience and partly by way
360456
vi Preface
of intercourse, which is pretty much the same as saying that the mind has found out something of or by itself, and has learnt other things from previous instructors. This being so, Herbart's idea of the teacher's work is that out of the " presentations " existent he is to create " Knowledge" and by intercourse he is to arouse " Sym- pathy". As there are no "faculties" save and except the one of receiving impressions from without, the Herbartian does not set out to train and exercise and so develop the mind, but begins to provide the very food and substance of the mind ; to build up a mind, in fact, by carefully building " apperception masses" up. The word " apperception " was used before Herbart used it, but with slightly different meaning : with him it signifies the taking into the mind new " presentations " by means of groups of similar ideas which already form part of the mental content. It is almost equivalent to assimilation, for by it ideas already in existence receive not alone an addition but a new determination.
It is not the aim of the writer to inquire at length into this theory of " Apperception " and " Apperception Masses," nor to trace the family resemblance between the action of groups of " similar masses " and our old friend the Association theory, since without at all sub- scribing to the principles put forward by Herbart we may clearly assent to the conclusion he arrives at, viz., the absolute necessity for teaching thoroughly by means of assimilation ; of using in the process of instruction the knowledge, and even the smallest particle of know- ledge, already possessed by the pupil ; and finally, in the act of instruction, to stimulate, concentrate, associate, reflect on, and cause the pupils consciously to reproduce the subject-matter of the lesson. It is here that Herbart has done good and lasting educational work. He has emphasised the old axiom " Teach from
Preface vii
the known to the unknown " ; but he has done more, and shown us how to do it. True, the Herbartian " Steps," as they have been called, are not wholly new to thought- ful teachers, but they are lucid and concise, and must infallibly prove extremely helpful to young teachers.
As a preliminary, Herbart lays much stress on " In- terest " (though we demur at his tendency to identify it with Attention): "To be wearisome," he says, "is the cardinal sin of instruction ". He also evidently appreciates the position of the inexperienced teacher when about to prepare his lesson ; to select and classify and put into order, not alone the matter to be pre- sented, but the mode of presenting it — the " Procedure " as it is called in the " Notes rt which follow. " The teacher's greatest difficulty," he says, " is to find real particulars ; to analyse his own thoughts into their elements." It is to lighten this difficulty that the present volume of lessons is issued, drawn up in con- formity with Herbart's plan, but, as the reader will see, not following his psychology in the " Aim " of the lesson.
The " Steps " briefly are : Preparation, Presentation, Assimilation, Application or Association, and Recapitu- lation.
Reference has already been made to the fact that even the youngest pupil comes to a lesson with pre- existing knowledge. Herbart intimates the first step by saying that " This circle [of thought] is to be widened, or its contents more thoroughly examined," so that the Preparation will sometimes consist of a question or two which acts like a searchlight on the pupil's mind. The questions oftenest refer to the last lessons in the particular branch, e.g., in Grammar, Arithmetic, Euclid, etc. The questions resuscitate ideas, rules, principles, examples, etc., in order to concentrate or determine
viii Preface
the direction of concentration before the actual teach- ing begins.
When the right ideas are uppermost in the con- sciousness, the new cognitions are placed clearly before the class. This is the second step, or Presentation ; and under this heading the teacher groups as much new matter as can be clearly apprehended in the allotted time. I do not say assimilated, because it most fre- quently happens that the work of assimilation (using the word in its general sense) goes on slowly and gradually, perfect illumination coming irregularly.
Nothing is more foreign to the Herbartian method than " cram," so it would be a fundamental error to overload this second stage.
Following the " presentation," or going hand in hand with it, is the work of connecting the new and old, of illustrating, questioning on, and so helping the pupil towards Assimilation. The place in time in the lesson of Association varies with different branches : e.g., in an object-lesson on an animal the description of its various parts and organs (presentation) is associated with its uses, the latter presentation being the comple- ment of the former. In a natural science lesson the experiments are the associating link, the deductions from them form the new presentations. Lastly, there is the important Recapitulation which summarises and re-pic- tures for the pupils the important parts of the lesson ; which searches their minds by concise and pointed questions, forces them finally to concentrate their atten- tion on the subject-matter as a " unity," and fans their flagging interest.
Such in brief is the Herbartian method of in- struction. It is applied in practical form to various branches in the "Notes of Lessons" which follow. Here and there a sufficient number of lessons on one
Preface ix
topic have been written to form a " series," but this has not been attempted in general. If the " Lessons " give to English Teachers a working knowledge of all that is best in the Herbartian method, they will fulfil their end.
M. FENNELL.
WIMBLEDON, December, 1901.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE v
Early English Prose and Poetry !
Explanation and Paraphrase of a Poetical Extract 3
Elizabethan Literature ........... 7
Elizabethan English as illustrated by As You Like It . . . .11
The Diction of Poetry X6
Introductory Lesson to As You Like It 20
The Date of As You Like It 23
Act ii., Scene i, As You Like It 26
Act ii., Scenes, As You Like It 29
The Parts of a Simple Sentence 34
The Analysis and Parsing of a Piece of Poetry . . . . . .36
The Transitive and Intransitive Verbs : 35
The Voice of Verbs (English Grammar) 40
The Function of certain Words ........ 43
The Elements of the English Language ....... 45
Lesson on Synonyms 50
The Change of Meaning of Words 54
Translation of a Selected Passage from French • • • • • 57
The Formation of the Plural of French Nouns 61
The Rules for the Agreement of Past Participles in French ... 65
Selected French Idioms 68
Rebellions in the Reign of Henry VII 71
The Spanish Armada 74
The Prosperity of England during Elizabeth's Reign .... 80
The Character of Philip II. of Spain 86
The Marian Persecutions .......... 89
The Character of James I. of England 93
The Civil War in Reign of Charles 1 96
The Battle of Marston Moor 99
The Career of Oliver Cromwell 103
The Great Fire of London 108
The Puritans . . . . . . . . . . . .112
The Rebellion of Monmouth 115
The Trial of the Seven Bishops . . . . . . . .117
The War of the Spanish Succession ........ 122
The Battle of Trafalgar 126
The Physical Features of Switzerland 132
xii Contents
PAGE
The Winds 137
The Phases of the Moon 141
The Tides 144
The Physical Features of Scotland 148
The Sculpture of the Land 152
The Cape to Cairo Railway 156
The Nature of Heat and its Effects 160
The Propagation of Heat . . . . . . . . .164
The Conduction of Heat 168
The Mercurial Thermometer .......... 171
First Lesson on Sound . • 174
The Pressure of Fluids (in a Closed Vessel) 177
Evaporation (of Water) 181
The Barometer 184
The Mechanical Powers . . . . . . . . . .187
The Principle of Archimedes ......... 192
A Problem in Geometry .......... 194
Pythagoras' Theorem . . .197
A Theorem in Geometry 200
Rider in Geometry ........... 203
Rider in Geometry ........... 206
Arithmetic —
Profit and Loss .......... 208
Clocks and Time ... 211
Brokerage (Stocks) 214
Extraction of the Square Root 217
Algebra —
Symbolic Expressions . ........ 222
Factors 224
Quadratic Equations 228
Extraction of the Square Root (Compound Expression) . . . 230 Object- Lessons —
The Spider ........... 233
The Horse
237
The Butterfly 239
The Camel . . • 242
The Elephant 244
The Bat .246
The Seed 249
The Flower 252
The Apple 255
Sugar 257
Cork 258
First Lesson on Form (Elementary Euclid) 261
Method of Passing a Bill in Parliament 264
The Invention of Printing 267
LESSON ON EARLY ENGLISH PROSE AND POETRY.
Class — Age, u to 13 years. Time — Half an hour. Aim — To exercise imagination of class and lead them to know the origin of English Prose and Poetry.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
i. Meaning of
Literature.
How Literature has been pre- served.
A collective term for all writings not connected with any special art or science. Two kinds, Prose and Poetry.
II. Presentation.
'(a) Stored up by memory,^
repetition and tradi- [Ex. : Homer tion. Bards, Min- 1 for^ooyears. strels.
(6) By signs and letters on leaves, parch- ment, flattened reeds and inner bark of trees.
(c) Writing on parchment f Monks,
and paper. \Scriptorium.
(d) Printing after Caxton, 1474. (Cadmon. Whitby and St. Hilda, 670.
I ParaPhrased Old and New Testament. [Form. Head rhyme or alliteration.
(a) Father of English prose, Ven. Bede,
seventh century.
(b) A monk at Jarrow-on-Tyne.
(i.) Ecclesiastical his-
tory. (ii.) Gospel of St. John
translated.
(d) Story of death as told by his disciple Cuthbert. I
2.
P tr
3. First English Prose.
(c) Chief works-
Nofes G& Hcrbartian Method
4. Saxon Chronicle. <
'(a] " The newspaper, the Annals, the • • History of the Nation." (b) Lasted till 1154.
(c) Various writers. Monks. King Alfred.
III. Association.
Compare literature of to-day as regards —
(a) Methods of preserving.
(b) Subjects chosen.
(c) Character of writers.
IV. Application.
I (a) History ; Ex. : Saxon Chronicle. (6) Change of language. (c) Bad or good influence. (d) As regards education.
V. Recapitulation.
Class to write out brief answers to following questions : —
(a) Define the term " literature ".
(b) What was the Saxon Chronicle P
(c) Write a short essay showing how a modern school
would differ from one in early English times.
PROCEDURE.
I. i. Question pupils as to the different subjects about which books are written, and show that the manner in which a thing is expressed has more to do with literature than the subject-matter. Give examples of lesson books, etc., which would not be considered literature. Literature is divided into prose and poetry.
II. i and 2. Literature preserves the thoughts of great people, and when they had no books how could these thoughts be remembered ? Explain bard, minstrel, and refer to Homer carried down by repetition for five hundred years. What were the very earliest kind of books ? Tell the class how leaves, bark, and flattened reeds were used for books and to preserve writing. Who wrote the books and spent their lives copy- ing, etc. ? When was this state of things changed ? how ? why ? What difference would this make to the value of
Explanation and Paraphrase of a Poetical Extract 3
books and the spread of literature? Now the first English poetry was written, composed by Caedmon. (Tell story of St. Hilda and Caedmon.) Subject was parts of Old and New Testament, and kind of rhyme very strange. All words of same initial letter were used. Called "Allitera- tion" or head-rhyme. Quote "An Austrian army awfully arrayed," etc. Show Whitby on map, and then relate account of first English prose writer, Venerable Bede, in seventh century, a monk at Jarrow-on-Tyne. (Show on map.) He wrote a history of what he would naturally study, as he was a priest. He also translated the Gospel of St. John, etc. (Tell story of his death.)
3. As there were no books or papers such as we have now to tell the news, how is it we know so much about those times ? Bards, minstrels, etc., and the Saxon Chronicle, which was written till 1154. (Who was reigning then?) The chief writers were again the monks.
III. Now we see how difficult it was to keep account of events in those far-off times. What methods have we to-day of keeping a history of news, events ? What subjects did our first prose and poetry writers take ? and what is chosen now ? What sort of people wrote in early times, who made the books, etc., and who does it now ? From this we see that the Church was the first to help on literature.
IV. What uses can be made of good literature ?
EXPLANATION AND PARAPHRASE OF A POETICAL EXTRACT.
(Introduction to Lay of Last Minstrel.)
Class — Average age, 13. Time — Half an hour. Aim — To lead class to understand the full meaning and appreciate the beauty of the passage, and thus be able to reproduce it in their own words.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
(Sir Walter Scott.
i. Source. -j Introduction to Lay of Last Minstrel. Other works of same author.
Notes on Herbartian Method
2. General Sense of the Passage.
A patriotic burst of enthusiasm.
Whatever else a man may have he will be deemed unworthy, and will soon be forgotten if he have not this love of country.
II. Presentation.
i. Inversions forEmphasis.
.%
Q
2. Omissions.
3. Meaning of Words and Grammar.
4. Figurative Expressions.
(d) " Breathes there a man."
(b) "As home his footsteps he hath
turned."
(c) " For him no minstrel raptures," etc.
(d) " High tho' his titles," etc.
(a) " High tho' his titles (be)."
(b) (As) " Boundless his wealth as wish,"
etc.
(c) " Living (he) shall forfeit," etc.
(a) " hath " : poetical.
(b) " strand " = shore ; here = land.
(c) "(/there be," subj. mood, less often
used now.
(d) "tho' high his titles," subj. mood,
less often used now.
(e) "minstrel raptures," noun, used as
adjective.
(/) "despite" = notwithstanding. (g) " pelf" = riches. (h) "vile dust" = the earth. (i) " sprung," past partic. for past tense. >JJJ) " concentred," i.e., concentrated.
(a) " soul so dead," i.e., with so little
feeling.
(b) " Whose heart burned " — metaphor.
(c) " footsteps turned "1 Synec- Jpart for " foreign strand " J doche\ whole.
(d) "power and pelf'j
"forfeit fair" ^Alliteration,
"doubly dying" )
Explanation and Paraphrase, of a Poetical Extract 5
IV. Application.
Paraphrase of Passage.
" Is there any one so devoid of love for his country as to feel no thrill of emotion when he returns home from travel in other lands ? If so, note him ; for the poet's song is not for him, however great may be his rank and riches : notwithstanding all these, the unhappy man, wrapped up in himself, will lose his reputation during life, will die without friends, or honour, forgotten by all."
PROCEDURE. III. Assimilation.
I. Refer briefly to the writer of the passage, who he was, where he lived, his first poem. Ask what else he wrote and how he is best known now. Tell class his poetry is noted for his many inversions of the natural order of words ; let them look out for such in reading the passage. (Now read passage while class follow with their books.) Ask them for the general sense of passage, and point out what a beautiful patriotic outburst it is. Ask to what country Scott referred naturally. Have we any similar one of Shakespeare referring to England ?
II. Next let class read it simultaneously, then ask what unusual order we find in the opening words. Why thus placed ? Find out the examples of inversions for emphasis. Where is the emphatic word placed ? What is meant by " heart . . . burned " ? Is it literally true ? What kind of language is it then ? How can we express it simply ? What figure of speech is it ? Ask for other examples of metaphors from class. Call attention to other figures in the first six lines and draw from class their force and meaning ; then let one of the class express the first six lines in his own words.
Take the next four lines in a similar way. Ask the mood of " If such," etc., and if it is common now. Is there any other example of subjunctive mood in these lines ? When
6 Notes on Herbartian Method
is the subjunctive used ? What is understood before " bound- less " ? What would be the natural order ? Why changed ? Paraphrase these lines. Read the last six, ask meaning of "pelf," and if often used, where chiefly found? Note " concentred ". What is unusual about this word ? What form has it generally ? Compare " centred " and " concen- trated ". What do both mean ? How expressed otherwise ? Ask what the class notices about the first letters of some words in lines 13 and 14. Tell them about alliterative poetry and give another example. What is meant by " doubly dying," " vile dust " ? — both poetical. What part of the verb is " sprung " ? Is it correctly used here ? How do we ex- press " unwept" and " unsung " in simpler form ?
IV. Let one or two pupils now paraphrase the last six lines, then several go through the whole without interrup- tions as to allusions or grammar, seeking only the best way to express the thoughts of Scott truly but in natural prose.
Let class write out the paraphrase for home-work.
" Breathes there the man, with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,
* This is my own — my Native Land ! '
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned
As home his footsteps he hath turned
From wand'ring on a foreign strand ?
If such there breathe, go — mark him well :
For him no minstrel raptures swell ;
High though his titles, proud his name,
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim —
Despite those titles, power and pelf,
The wretch, concentred all in self,
Living, shall forfeit fair renown ;
And, doubly dying, shall go down
To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
Unwept, unhonoured and unsung ! "
Elizabethan Literature
NOTES OF A LESSON ON ELIZABETHAN LITERATURE.
Class — Age, 15 to 17 years. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To exercise imagination and judgment while imparting a general idea of the period.
I. Preparation.
Causes leading to this new and great pe- riod.
II. Presentation. (a) Rise.
MATTER.
(a) Effect of Renaissance began to be
felt in England only in the sixteenth century.
(b) Peace and prosperity at home.
(c) Impulse received from discoveries in
the New and Old World and in science.
((a) Pageants, Mysteries and Moralities of olden Times.
(b) Translations of classical dramas.
(c) Original dramas.
i. THE DRAMA.
( I
"§ J(i) Comedy.
I First English comedy, Ralph Royster Doyster, acted before Queen Eliza- ( beth ; composed by Nicholas Udall.
^1(2) Tragedy. JFirst EnSlish tragedy, Gorboduc ; by \ Sackville on classical model.
(a) Inns and courtyards — acting in open
(c) Theatres.
ar.
(b) First theatre, Blackfriars, greater
Part still uncovered.
(c) Before end of reign eighteen in
London alone.
(d) Contrast between sixteenth and
nineteenth century theatres.
Nofes on Hcrbartin-n Method
2. DRAMATISTS.
(a) Chris. Mar-( l' lowe, greatest- of ist period.
(b)Shakespeare, the greatest <J English dra- matist.
(c)BenJonson, greatest after Shakespeare.
Short and dissolute life. Style, coarse and bombastic, yet full of passion.
Works : chief, Dr. Fanstus, i.e., Faust of Goethe.
Contrast with (a).
Remarkable for large vocabulary wide experience of human nature, and wonderful delineation of char- acter.
Works : Comedies, tragedies, his- torical dramas.
Like (a) led dissolute life and died in poverty.
Chief Works : Two comedies, The AlcJiemist and Volpone the Fox, belonging to later Elizabethan period.
3. POETRY.
Spenser.
4. PROSE.
(a) A pastoral and allegorical poet.
Made a name for himself by the Shepherd's Calendar.
(b) Chief Work : Faerie Queen, an alle-
gory. Plot: Twelve knights fight in defence of twelve virtues against their contrary vices. The Queen Gloriana personated Elizabeth.
Hooker. A divine. Wrote Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, a work on Church matters, written in rich language and elaborate style.
Francis Bacon. A scientist ; the inaugu- rator of a new Philosophy. Greatest work : The Advancement of Learn- ing.
Elizabethan Literature g
III. Association.
Connect literature with history, manners and customs of the times, and show how the one is influenced by the others.
(Passages from Spenser and Bacon to be read to the class so as to enable class to perceive difference of their style from that of modern times.)
IV. Recapitulation.
What were the chief causes of the great advance of literature in this period ? Describe the rise of the modern drama. Name the first comedy and tragedy in English. Who wrote Dr. Faustus, Julius Ccesar, The Faerie Queen, Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, Volpone, Advancement of Learning ? What was the character of each of these ?
PROCEDURE.
I. Begin by asking pupils what was the great event in 1453, and how it affected literature in general, and why the revival was not felt in England till a century later. Draw from this that in time of war there is no opportunity for literature to advance, and ask whether it was likely to pros- per in the time of the Tudors and especially Elizabeth. The dawn of a new and great period of English literature began with the fifteenth century, and reached its full meridian splendour in Elizabeth's reign, owing to the peace and prosperity at home, and the spirit of adventure and discovery abroad.
II. i. (a) Tell class that the most striking characteristic of this period is the birth and rapid growth of the modern drama. Ask what were the only kinds of plays acted before this time, and what was their aim. (To teach the people morals and religion.) Can this be said of the modern drama ? Describe its rise from the translations and imita- tions of the classical plays just then so popular at the Universities, helped on by encouragement from Elizabeth,
IO Notes on Hcrbartian Method
who was very fond of pageants and entertainments of all sorts.
(6) Ask what are the two kinds of dramas now quite common, and what is the difference between them.
The first original play was a comedy called Ralph Royster Doyster, composed by Nicholas Udall, to be acted before the Queen by the Temple students. Describe the plot briefly.
Two years later we hear of the first English tragedy (by Sackville), exactly on the model of ancient Greek plays — Gorboduc.
Tell the story, and point out it went to excess in tragic deeds, almost every character of any importance being mur- dered before the end ! Compare this with any of Shake- speare's plays which were written shortly after. What must be concluded ?
(c) Before considering a few of the greatest dramatists, we must take a glance at the places for acting in the early days of the drama. Draw from class where the Mysteries and Moralities used to be acted, and what were the rude attempts at scenery. The first theatre proper was built at Blackfriars in the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. Describe it, and compare with the many magnificent buildings of the present day. Call attention to the fact that no female actors were ever seen then ; boys always acted their parts.
2. Let us now consider the character and works of the three greatest Elizabethan dramatists. Two of them are no longer acted, but the third is perhaps better appreciated now than in his own time. Ask who is our greatest dramatist. (Shakespeare.)
(a) Christopher Marlowe was the greatest of the first period of Elizabeth's reign. A man of passionate and dis- solute character. Describe his end. (Stabbed in a tavern brawl.) Nevertheless a great genius. Name works. Ask who else has dramatised the legend of Dr. Faustus. In same way treat of Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, and compare their characters, lives, and, in consequence, the tone of their works.
Elizabethan English n
3. This general outline of Elizabethan literature would not be complete without referring to the poetry and prose of the period, though not so important. The greatest poet was Edmund Spenser — a pastoral and allegorical poet. (Ask meaning of these terms.) Mention his two chief works, and show how the Faerie Queen is a true allegory.
4. Among the prose writers of the period may be men- tioned Hooker, a divine, who wrote a prodigious work on Church matters (give name). Also Francis Bacon, the great originator of experimental science. (Ask meaning and ex- plain.) He belongs in great part to a later period, as most of his works, and among them his greatest, The Advance- ment of Learning, were written in James I.'s reign.
Might mention that Ben Jonson's play, The Alchemist, was lately produced in London by the Society of Players — that modern critics found dialogue too lengthy and action too little.
LESSON ON ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH AS ILLUSTRATED BY AS YOU LIKE IT.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time — Fifty minutes. Aim — To exercise judgment of the class in discovering the Elizabethan English in Shakespeare.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
1. Refer to diffi-f Chaucer.
culties in read-| Spenser, ing [Shakespeare.
2. Cause of ("Living languages.
changes. \Cf. dead languages.
II. Presentation.
fWhy important. I. Elizabethan J Rise of drama.
English. [Literature increased.
12
Notes on Herbartian Method
2. Effects of 'Period on Language.
3. Some Points of Difference.
(a) Transition period in English lan- guage.
(6) Influx of new discoveries — new thoughts require new words.
(c) Revival of classical translations of
Latin and Greek authors caused change of construction.
(d) Destruction of inflections ; therefore
experiments made.
((a) Any part of speech used for any other :
" Thou speakest wiser than thou art ware of" (Act ii., 4, 52) — adjective for adverb. " In their barks my thoughts I'll character" (Act iv., 2, 6) — noun for verb.
" Let no face be kept in mind but the fair of Rosalind " (Act iii., 2, 84) — adjective for noun.
(b) Double negatives for emphasis :
" Nor did not with unbashful forehead" (Act ii., 3, 50).
"I cannot go no further" (Act
ii., 4> 8). Double comparatives for emphasis :
" A more sounder instance " (Act iii., 2, 55).
(c) Omission of relative :
" But that . . . they call compli- ment " (Act ii., 5, 22).
" But is there any else . . . longs to see, etc., ... is there yet another . . . dotes upon rib- breaking" (Act i., 2, 127, 128).
(d) Quasi-singular verb and plural sub- ject (accounted for by the fact that
^ play was written to be spoken) :
Elizabethan English
3. Some Points of Difference.
III. Association.
Compare differ- ences of
Also change of
" There comes an old man and his three sons " (Act i., 2, 106).
"There is none of my uncle's marks upon you " (Act iii., 2,
339)-
" There comes a lover of mine and a lover of hers " (Act v., 2,
67).
(e) Formation of participles — tendency to drop "en " :
" He would not have spoke such
a word " (Act i., i, 77). " If thou hast not broke from
company" (Act ii., 4, 37). " Why I have eat none yet " (Act
ii., 7, 88).
(/) Unsettled accent due to tendency to retain Latin accent versus inclina- tion to put English accent ; there- fore changes took place in the same word :
" Now my co-mates and brothers
in exile " (Act ii., i, i). "And as mine eye doth his ef- figies witness " (Act iii., 7, 193). " The quintessence of every sprite" (Act iii., 2, 128).
(Chaucer's English.
\Norman English.
JCustoms, manners, environment, ideas,
\ etc.
IV. Application.
Good features in C i Elizabethan| 2 English. (3
Freedom. Brevity. Vigour.
"Artless and unlaboured harmony seems to be the heritage of Elizabethan poets."
1 4 Notes on Plerbartian Method
V. Recapitulation.
1. Influences affecting Elizabethan English.
2. Chief differences.
3. Pupils to discover for themselves one example of each
point.
PROCEDURE.
I. i and 2. Question the class as to reason of difficulties found in reading old English authors — Chaucer, Spenser (write lines from each on blackboard) and Shakespeare. What is the cause of this ? Contrast Latin and Greek — why not so difficult to those who know the language, although older than Shakespeare's works. Why this difference ? What do we call languages which change ? Those which do not change ? What sort of English do we meet in Shakespeare? What is his age called ?
II. i and 2. This Elizabethan age is of importance — why ? What arose at this time that made Shake- speare such a great poet ? How was literature increased at this period, and why ? There were many events and circumstances which affected the language at this time. We shall try to find some. Then question so as to elicit Revival of Classics, discoveries at sea and on land, and results of each to language. The language was in an unsettled state (refer to periods of English), and, therefore, while people were altering spelling, construction, inflections, etc., what would this licence lead to ? A variety of methods; no settled laws.
3. Now we shall see how some of these irregularities are to be found in Shakespeare's English : —
(a) Any part of speech used for any other. (Quote examples, and ask reason for such change and irregularities.)
(b) The poets of the age tried to be emphatic and brief: hence often double negatives (quote examples, and question on them), also double comparatives. (Cf. modern sense of such.) The Elizabethan authors aimed at brevity. What would this naturally lead to in their writings ? Omissions, but not such as to destroy the sense. (Quote examples, and
Elizabethan English 15
ask the class to supply the missing word.) What was the end for which Shakespeare's plays were written ? Was it to be read by future generations ? (To be acted at the time : hence they were written to be spoken.) This fact has led to some irregularities, as, for instance, singular verb and plural subject. Elicit reason for this, and quote examples.
This period of English forwarded loss of inflection. Give examples.
What influences affected language by revival of learning, and what words would be likely to come into the language at this time ? This led to the unsettled accent on words — some tended to the Latin accent and some to the English accent ; therefore changes took place in the same word. (Quote examples.)
III. Now these are the chief differences we have to encounter in Elizabethan English as read in Shakespeare. Now, if we were to read Chaucer, would our difficulties be greater or less ? (Show, by reference to Chaucer's Prologue, that spelling would be quite different, more inflections, and pronoun it not used yet.) Is there any other influence which would affect the language of an author ? Surroundings, manners, customs: hence passages that would not have sounded coarse according to customs in those times would do so now.
IV. Still, although these difficulties exist, how does the language of Shakespeare rank to-day ? What quality would result from neglect of rules ? from omissions and peculiar construction ? and from emphasis and force ? A certain writer has said, " Artless and unlaboured harmony has seemed to be the heritage of Elizabethan poets". Cf. effect of laboured efforts at harmony, etc., by moderns, and the result not to be compared with Shakespeare.
V. Recapitulate by questions on points given.
i6
Notes on Herbartian Method
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE DICTION OF POETRY.
(Illustrations from Richard II., Clarendon Press Ed.)
Class — Pupils from 13 to 15 years. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To lead class to an appreciation of the niceties and beauties of language and so cultivate a critical taste.
MATTER AND VERBAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
I. Preparation.
Why poetic diction should differ from prose.
(a) Poetry and prose differ" in their object, the one mainly is to give plea- sure, the other infor-
one must be
beautiful, the other clear.
mation : hence
On account of form poetry isj rhyme,
limited by exigencies of \metre.
II. and III. Presentation and Association.
Some marks of poetic diction. i. It is rendered picturesque by :—
/'woe, for sorrow, p. 49. alack, alack, for woe. why he cometh hither " (for here)t p 49
(a) Use by pre- ference of un-
familiar words, i " our eyes do hate the dire aspect," p. 13. e.g. : " 'tis nameless woe, I wot " (for know).
' " to bear the tidings of calamity."
foryond methinks he stands," p. 49.
(b) Figures speech.
of
-Simile.
" Edward's seven sons were as
seven vials," p. 7. " Be swift like lightning," p. 12. " In rage deaf as the sea, hasty
as fire."
The Diction of Poetry
(b) Figures of speech.
(c) Personification and personal metaphor.
My oil-dried lamp shall be
extinct."
My inch of taper," p. 16. Ere my tongue shall
wound," p. 6.
Meta- I " Thou most beauteous inn," J phor. \ p. 66.
" Time made me his number- ing clock," p. 79. " This precious stone set in
the silver sea," p. 21. " Men are but gilded loam."
"That strew the green lap of the new
come spring."
" Might fright fair peace." To wake, p. 13. " Some of ... by the Destinies cut," p. 7. " Truth hath a quiet breast," p. 12. " ignorance ... a gaoler," p. 14.
2. It is rendered terse and euphonious : —
" The sullen passage of thy weary steps,"
p. 17. " Vassal hand/' p. 49 ; " my stooping
duty," p. 48. " my weeping eye," p. 9 ; " maid-pale
peace," p. 49. " a ceremonious leave." " the fearful bending of my knee."
" Is near the hate of I those [who] love , Antecedent and not."
relatives, e.g.A " And duty bids defend," objectives. p. 32.
"That receipt [which] > I had," p. 5. Conjunctives: e.g., "He would have
been so brief," p. 47. Particles: "'Venge," p. 8; "'gainst," p. 15. 2
(a) By the use of epithets.
(b) By the sup- pression of words and particles.
1 8 Notes on Herbartian Metlwd
Summary : The choice of words in prose and poetry is affected by the widely different objects of these, one being to give information, must be clear before all else, the other must be beautiful before all else. This is secured by certain artifices, viz., the use of figures of speech, the use of epithets, the suppression of all unnecessary words and the use of un- familiar words provided always they be more euphonious.
IV. Eecapitulation.
i. Name some devices of poets in order to give beauty to their passages. 2. Quote one metaphor from Richard II. 3. What faults may metaphors have ? 4. Give examples. 5. Name the chief Shakespearian device for shortening and beautifying expression of his ideas.
PROCEDURE.
i. Introduce lesson by pointing out to class that the object of the ordinary prose writer is to impart either some information or a moral lesson. Draw from them that clear- ness is the first thing the writer aims at. Nothing will excuse a fault against clearness. Question them as to dif- ference of poetry. Ask if it is as a rule clear and easy to understand. Is this counted a fault? Show that some kinds of rhetoric prose, impassioned speech, etc., very closely resemble poetry. Why ? Because beautiful. Draw from class meaning of word diction. What other limitations as to diction in poetry ? Give examples.
(a) Remark at opening that Richard II. is chosen as means of illustration only because of utility. Other plays, as Midsummer Night, Tempest, etc., more poetic. An historical play more like prose. Beauty dependent on pictures ; prove this. Write on board one or two examples, and question as to the word that would betray the quotation to be from vers-e. Give reasons as to metre and novelty for use of "hither" "dire" "wot". Show from " yond methinks " that metre is not always dictating principle. Make pupils supply second syllable, "yonder I think";
The Diction of Poetry 19
read this aloud. Draw from class it is commonplace, and that this alone makes it unsuitable.
(b) Give some examples, e.g., " Quick as thought," " White as snow," etc., to show that comparison forms a large part of our speech. Elicit two or three figures of com- parison, and get definition from class.
Quote some similes and get others from class. Turn one of the examples into a metaphor. Show increase of force. Compare to colour scheme in painting. Contrast needful to art.
Take one or two metaphors, " Men are but gilded loam"; work out the comparison fully. Point out how metaphors may fail — may be mixed, e.g., " He smelt a rat, he saw it brewing in the air, but he would nip it in the bud". Draw from class why the Parliamentary orator who was guilty of this failed. Give another example from text, e.g., "Who when they see the hours ripe . . . will rain hot vengeance". Ask pupils to alter so as to make metaphor consistent. Point out fault of too many details, e.g., passage beginning "Time made me his numbering clock". Show fault. Call attention to " even in the glasses of thine eyes," etc. Show part of this is literally true; therefore not good as an effective metaphor. Read "ere my tongue shall wound . . . or sound". Question as to fault of metaphor. (Recap, i by a few questions.)
(c) Pass on to Personification, treating examples after same mode.
2 (a) Coming to the use of epithets, point out that class is now to examine a favourite Shakespearian device. Select first passage quoted in matter, and expand the ideas in sullen and weary. Ask class how it gains. Show that one word makes a picture.
Do this with two or three examples, and then draw from class the terms Terse and Euphonious.
(b) In same manner go through next point, asking class to supply omissions.
20
Notes on Herbartian Method
INTRODUCTORY LESSON TO AS YOU LIKE IT.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Previous Knowledge — The story of the play. Aim — To give the class notions of the general character of the play and its place among Shake- speare's works, so as to form a foundation upon which the course of lessons may be built.
I. Preparation.
ent styles
Shakespeare's
dramas.
2. Examples of each.
II. Presentation.
'(«;
i. Style of Play: As You Like-^ It.
2. Story and its Sources.
3. Circumstances connected with. Play.
,W (b)
(b)
(c)
MATTER.
TT. A • , ' fTragic, melodramatic. Historical. |
Fiction.
Midsummer Night's Dream. Richard II., Henry V. Merchant of Venice, As You It.
Like
speares comedies.
Pastoral. Scene laid in a forest (Arden).
Written after Henry V.
One of Shake-"| Best of them with later I Midsummer } Night's Dream. 'Therefore scene in France, and from camp and Court to forest and country. Lodge's Tale of Rosalynde.
( Rosalind, Celia, Chief characters. j Qrlando.
Dedication of Lodge (Cl.
Press Ed., p. viii.). As reply to criticism of
Ben Jonson. Shakespeare took part of Adam. Why Shakespeare philosophises about adversity.
He mocks the folly of the Court. The refinement of the jester's jokes.
Title of I play.
Introductory Lesson to "As You Like //" 21
III. Association.
1. With Midsummer Night's Dream as to style.
2. With other plays, where woman is the chief char-
acter.
3. With Hamlet, as Shakespeare took part in it also.
4. Contrast Shakespeare's delineation of character with
Dickens's method.
IV. Application.
'(a) To show types of love in Court and
, in the country,
i. Shakespeare s (fe) The refinement of fun and iaughter.
(c) To look at formalities of the Court in their true light.
V. Recapitulation of chief points connected with style of
play, source of the story, chief characters and any circumstances connected with the plot. Blackboard sketch (filled in as the recapitulation proceeds).
PROCEDURE.
I. i and 2. Introduce lesson by questions on the differ- ent plays of Shakespeare known to class, those they have learnt, and deduce the three classes — Historical, Legendary and Fictitious. Ask what prose works fall under this last class. Refer to the fact of the plot being the product of the imagination or taken from some work of fiction. Give examples of each, and then elicit from what they know already of As You Like It that it is a play of fiction and a comedy.
II. i. We see then that it is a comedy, and is considered one of Shakespeare's best with Midsummer Night's Dream. The scene of As You Like It is laid in a forest, therefore what kind of comedy is it ? (Pastoral.) The Forest " Arden ". Two suppositions as to name. Where have we allusion to the Ardennes ? This play was written after Henry V. Draw from class contrast in style — from Court to country and forest; and that Shakespeare's own circum- stances at the time made him bitter against the follies of the Court, and inclined him to philosophise on adversity.
22 Notes on Herbartian Method
2. The story is not original, but taken from a novel called Tale of Rosalynde, written by Lodge about Shake- speare's time, and Lodge had already borrowed it from some one else. (Refer to the idea prevalent at that time with regard to original plots.) Elicit chief characters — Rosalind, Celia and Orlando — by reference to story of play. Origin of title uncertain. Supposed to have been taken from a passage in Lodge's dedication. (Make class read it together from text- book, Cl. Press Edition.) Second supposition is that it is a mocking reply to Ben Jonson's criticism on the comedies of Shakespeare.
3. In connection with this play we may note that Shake- speare himself took a part, that of Adam (this and Ghost of Hamlet are the only parts which it is certain he took). Relate legend about his brother having seen him. Refer to personal troubles, and as a result his philosophy about Court. Touch- stone the most refined jester of Shakespeare. " His wit was half foolery, his foolery half wit."
III. As in this and other plays, the character of women comes out strong. Cf. Portia in Merchant of Venice. Com- pares with Midsummer Night's Dream in style and fun ; with Hamlet in part taken by Shakespeare. Plot not much in itself, but out of sentiments and characters interest arises rather than events and situations. Contrast with Dickens in character drawing. Shakespeare's characters are from within, Dickens's from without. Resulting in drama and prose respectively.
IV. Question as to results often effected by a poet's or a prose writer's works (Dickens, Besant, etc., etc.). Dreyfus case. . . . Shakespeare's intention in this play was to show up the types of love in the high-born maiden and in the peasant. The jokes made are more refined than those in other plays, and he aimed at exposing the formalities of the Court in their true light.
V. Recapitulate chief points of style, source of story and circumstances connected with the play in general.
Set class a question, requiring as answer the substance of lesson given. This to be answered in writing.
The Date of " As You Like It"
LESSON ON THE DATE OF AS YOU LIKE IT.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To exercise judgment of the class in deciding date from proofs evident, and to interest them in circumstances connected with the play.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
i. Means of ascer- taining Date.
II. Presentation.
I. Extrinsi cP roofs.-
[(a) Why difficult. No date given by S.
(b) Whether belonging to early or later
period.
(c) External evidences. .(d) Internal evidences.
\(a) Entry :
i. Entered in Stationers' Register with Henry V., Much Ado About No- thing, Every Man in His Humour — Ben Jonson.
ii. "To be staid," i.e., not printed, date 4th August ; no year given. Only printed in 1623.
iii. Previous entry, 2yth May, 1600, 1601.
iv. Name not menO Cf. Merchant tioned by Mere, j- of Venice, 1598. J Richard II.
(b) Allusions :
i. " Whoever loved, that loved not at first sight" (Act iii., 5, 82) — quoted from Marlowe's Hero and Leander, published in 1598.
ii. " Like Diana in the fountain " (Act iv., i, 134) — probable reference to statue at Cheapside, 1596, for a fountain.
iii. " They are all like one another as half-pence are" (Act iii., 2,327) —
24
Notes on Hcrbartian Method
i. ExtrinsicP roofs.
2. Intrinsic Proofs A
half-pence only coined in 1582-83, reign of Elizabeth.
iv. Possible reference in v., 2, 63, and iv., i, 164, but would put date too late. Therefore possible date 1599 or 1600.
(a) Style and mode of thought influ-
enced by signs of premature age in Shakespeare due to adversity, loss of friends, etc. ; therefore a later comedy.
(b) Language alive with imagery. Group-
ing of characters not so artificial.
(c) Verse tests :
i. Run on verse and not end stop as in early plays (Act ii., i, 3, 10, 56).
ii. Feminine endings, body. (Act ii., i, 8, 64 ; Act ii., 2, 9) — 18 °/0 in play.
iii. Less rhyme in later plays (cf. Richard II.). Unimportant matter not in rhyme (Act i., i, 2 ; Act iii.).
iv. Speech end test (Act i., 2, 272 ; Act ii., i, 17, 43 ; Act iii., 5, 27 ; Act v., 4, 158).
History of the times. Personal history of writer. Contrast in this case with Henry V. A^re when written.
V
III. Association.
i. Compare the In- ((a) fluences of the ] (b) Date on the} (c) Play. ((d)
IV. Recapitulation.
1. Means of discovering date.
2. External evidences.)
VExamples.
3. Internal evidences. ]
V. Application.
Get class to observe and discover for themselves some internal evidences of later comedy, as Run on verse. Feminine endings. Speech end test.
The Date of "As You Like It" 25
PROCEDURE.
I. Question class on meaning of date of the play, and why the difficulty has arisen about deciding the date. Which are the periods of Shakespeare's works ? What sort of dif- ferences would one naturally expect to find in an author's later and his earlier works ? There are two evidences which help to give date — first, those external to play or connected with it, or extrinsic (give derivation) ; others internal, or change in the play itself.
II. Now we shall find what external proofs we can find as to the date of the play. First, the entry (here explain meaning of entry) gives when As You Like It was entered ; year not put, 4th August, and "to be staid," i.e., printed 1623. Some clue is given by the fact that the previous entry was in 2yth May, 1600, and next 1603. What will conclusion be then ? 1599 or 1600. Just about opening of Globe Theatre, where it was acted (Adam). Not mentioned in Mere's list, and this was entered in 1598. Must be between 1598 and 1600.
1. Allusions in play may also help us as to date. Why? Here point out and let the class read in text, and explain allusions to Marlowe's work, Diana fountain, half-pence (coined 1582). (Who was reigning?) Also possible refer- ence to statutes passed against oaths — v., 2, 63 ; iv., i, 164; but these last quotations mentioned are not supposed to have any intentional reference on the part of the author. (Here recapitulate external evidence.)
2. Deduce the mode of thought brought out by the author ; its cause ; and hence date of play about time of Shake- speare's temporal troubles, loss of friends, etc. . . . One of his later comedies. If later, shall we expect to find it better from a literary point of view than former plays ? Why ? One of great tests of date and internal evidence is the verse test — (a) Run on verse, seen in later plays. (Point out and show examples.) (b) Feminine endings. (Explain and point out passages marked.) (c) Less rhyme in later plays. Why ? Prose more perfect in style and form, also the play lends itself to prose, as there is much conversation, and
26 Notes on Herbartian Method
unimportant parts are generally prose. (<7) Speech end test — the broken line. Also seen in Richard II. (Show passages marked.)
III. How could the date of composition influence the play itself? History of times affect the mind of the poet? Personal history ? How shown in this case ? Coming after Henry V., what effect did this produce in scene, place, character and contrasts, and lastly, age of the poet ? Mature — lost the glare of worldly goods — sees by experience use of sorrow and adversity — learnt by experience.
IV. Recapitulate internal evidence, verse test and lan- guage, and ask some of the examples that were pointed out and shown.
V. Make class discover for themselves some of the in- ternal tests for next lesson — as run on verse, feminine endings, speech end tests.
Blackboard Sketch.
Date of Play.
( External. Means of d,scovery{Intemal
Internal
Allusions (6).
1. Style and mode of thought.
2. Language.
Verse test
(a). (6). (c). (d).
NOTES OF A LESSON ON ACT II., SCENE i, SHAKESPEARE'S AS YOU LIKE IT.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To give the class increased literary knowledge ; to stimulate their imagination, and so lead them more easily to realise the play in an appre- ciative manner.
GENERAL PLAN AS TO MATTER SELECTED. I. Preparation.
Class to read whole of scene before the lesson.
Shakespeare's "As You Like It"
II. Presentation.
i. Analysis Scene.
It describes background of action.
Natural : see " winter's wind," " antique oak," " brawling brook ".
Moral: the Duke, "happy
is your grace ". Jaques, J " weeping and comment-
ing".
It adds nothing to action, but contains several beautiful and well-quoted lines, e.g., " Sweet are the uses of adversity ".
Words and phrases selected, (a) co-mates.
(6) old custom of the sea- son's difference.
(c) painted pomp.
(d) envious court.
(e) the penalty of Adam.
. chur-
Explanation or appreciation of.
the redundancy, cf. brothers.
mode by which Shakespeare marks length of exile.
Alliteration : notice con- trast continued.
figure of speech and force of envious.
classical, not biblical, cf. golden world.
contrast/aw^-, bites, chiding, blows.
work out figure of speech.
force of feelingly. Para- phrase passage.
Paraphrase.
(/) icy fang and . lish chiding, of winter's wind. (g) no flattery — counsellors
that feelingly.
(h) Sweet are the uses of adversity. . . . venomous, wears yet a precious jewel, etc.
Note the familiar and oft-quoted lines " Sermons in stones," and paraphrase and give general meaning. (i) " Happy is your grace," etc.
Deduce — i. That the Duke is resigned, nay, content, ii. That he must be magnanimous, iii. That Amiens admires him.
28 Notes on Herbartian Method
III. Recapitulation.
A few questions of general import, e.g. : —
1. Give a very brief description of the forest.
2. What is the function of this scene in the play ?
3. Why does Shakespeare lead Orlando to Rosalind in
the forest ?
4. Repeat the lines about adversity.
IV. Assimilation.
As a written exercise the class may sketch from memory the forest and the personages, or paraphrase one or other speech or learn some lines by heart.
PROCEDURE, QUESTIONS AND ORAL DEMONSTRATIONS.
I. Teacher begins by reading to class last two lines of Act i. :—
Celia. — " Now go we in content
To liberty, and not to banishment."
Point out that these lines prepare our minds for the scene which Shakespeare is now to put before us, in which we see the forest that is to be the place where Rosalind's fortunes are to be played out.
Who are the characters in this scene ? What relation is there between the Duke and Rosalind ? and why is the former in banishment ? Quote some phrases from the text which picture the forest for us. (" Winter's wind," " antique oak," " brook," etc.) Point out to class that the poet is here deftly and with great art making the personages describe Arden. Draw from them greater need of this in his day, when stage properties were rude. If any place in locality lends itself to contrast, here direct attention to it. Why is Shakespeare so particular as to his background ? How will it affect the life of Rosalind and Orlando as conceived by us? With what other life will it contrast ? Given his upbringing, in which life will Orlando show to most advantage ? Where do we first see this truth ? (Wrestling match.)
Next show that not alone our natural surroundings, but those with whom we associate colour our lives, and therefore
Shakespeare's "As You Like Itn 29
Shakespeare carefully discloses to us the personages with whom his hero and heroine are to be thrown.
How does Amiens comment on the Duke's first speech ? (" Happy is your grace," etc.)
What does this tell us of the Duke's character ? What do we learn further from the lords about Jaques ? (" Weep- ing and commenting," etc.)
Do the lords criticise this adversely ? If not, what of their characters ?
Is there any incident at all in the scene ? Why finally did Shakespeare write it ?
II. Next the teacher proceeds to read or let a member of the class read the Duke's first speech, and then discuss the words and phrases in something like the following mode :—
(a) Co-mates: i. What is the meaning of particle co ? Give examples of other words. (Co-workers, etc.)
2. What is the meaning of mates ?
3. What do you call this doubling ? Why does the poet use it ?
Is there any other word pointing to the same idea ?
Old custom: Suppose the Duke had merely said custom, what would have been implied ? But if the custom is old what further is implied ? Find another phrase that marks the lapse of time in exile. (" Season's differences.")
Note. — All the other phrases are commented on after the same mode, the teacher putting searching questions, connect- ing the force of passages, and only supplying what pupils cannot find out.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON ACT II., SCENE 3, OF AS YOU LIKE IT.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time— Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To cultivate a literary taste and to increase the appreciation of class for Shakespeare.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
Class read through scene before coming to lesson. Subject-matter recalled briefly by a few searching questions.
Notes on Herbartian Method
i.
II. Presentation.
Its function in the play :
(a) To bring into relief the gentleness
and lovableness of Orlando's char- acter, and thus to heighten our appreciation of the hero of the play.
(b) To advance the action of the play
by preparing us for the sojourn of Orlando in the forest, where his good qualities will appear to ad- vantage.
( Words and phrases selected. Give explanation or appreciation of. (a) " O you memory of old Memory for memorial ; use
A nalysis of Scene.
Sir Roland."
of abstract for concrete.
(b) " Why would you be so Would you = were you
fond."
desirous.
" The bonny priser of humorous = whimsical. the humorous duke."
(d) " Your virtues are sanc-
fsanctifiedl
tified and holy traitors redundan^ |and holy}'
to you."
figure of speech, personi- fication.
allusion to poisoned robe sent to Hercules.
me to the malice of a diverted blood and bloody brother."
(e) " When what is comely envenoms him that bears it."
(/) " I will rather subject Orlando's nobility of char- acter in preferring to suffer evil rather than commit it. Diverted blood : the feeling of a relation turned from its proper course.
(g) " The thrifty hire." use of thrifty — Hypallage.
Cf. "youthful wages," " weak evils ".
(h) "When service should in alliteration and metaphor, my old limbs lie lame."
"5
•i
I
•a
Shakespeare's "As You Like It" 31
(f) " And unregarded age expand metaphor into a
in corners thrown." simile.
(j) " He that doth the Shakespeare's religious mind ravens feed, be com- in thus expressing trust fort to my age." in God's providence.
(k) " My age is as a lusty use of kind to mean season- winter, frosty but able, natural. Cf. use of kindly." kind, iii., 2, 87, " cat will
after kind ". Figure of speech simile.
(/) Give substance of Orlando's last speech. To be deduced by class : i. Character of Adam from his speeches, ii. Shakespeare's modesty in choosing to act the part of Adam, one of minor characters in the play ; also how Shakespeare must have entered into the character of Adam since in acting his part he was giving expression to his own sen- timents.
iii. To notice rhyming passage — a thing unusual in play — occurring generally at the close of a speech or scene.
III. Association.
Refer to source of As You Like It, i.e., Lodge's novel. Contrast Shakespeare's treatment of the relations between -
master and servant, and point out to class how much
truer Shakespeare is to nature.
IV. Recapitulation.
1. What is the function of this scene in the play ?
2. What light does it throw on Shakespeare's own
character ?
3. What classical allusions are in this scene ? What
Scriptural allusions ?
4. Give two instances of figures of speech.
5. Quote some lines revealing Orlando's love of what is
right.
32 Notes on Herbartian Method
PROCEDURE, QUESTIONS AND ORAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
Introduce lesson by recalling Shakespeare's intention in choosing the forest as the scene of the greater part of the play, i.e., to bring into prominence all Orlando's good qualities, these surroundings being more calculated to do so than those of the Court.
Questions : Who are the only persons in this scene ? What effect has this limitation to two persons on our minds? To whom does Shakespeare wish to direct all our attention ? What points in Orlando's character are brought out in this scene ? Point out Shakespeare's choice of the situation in which to bring Orlando before us. The dialogue is between master and servant, and the words of each serve to bring out Orlando's nobility and lovableness. What sentiments to- wards his master does Adam's first speech reveal ? What are Orlando's feelings towards his old servant ? Adam's loving admiration for his master and Orlando's respectful words to his aged servant show us the delicacy of his treat- ment of inferiors. The fact, too, that Adam had spent his years from " seventeen till almost fourscore " in the service of Orlando says much for the character of both Orlando and his father. How does this dialogue at once affect our feelings towards Adam ? By what means has Shakespeare previously endeavoured to win our admiration for Orlando ? Did he succeed then ? Has he succeeded now ? The effect of this scene, then, is to increase our admiration of the hero, and to make us desirous of following his fortunes. What, then, is the function of this scene ? To advance the action of the play by preparing us for Orlando's stay in the forest.
Read through Adam's first speech, and ask following or similar questions : —
Why does Adam in a manner regret his master's virtues?
Phrases: i. What is meaning of memory here? Who was old Sir Roland ?
2. What is the meaning of " fond " ? the force of " would you " ?
Shakespeare's "As You Like It" 33
3. To what incident does this refer ? Who is the " bonny priser " ? The humorous Duke ?
Why does Adam regret Orlando's having overcome the wrestler ? Who else was affected in a different way by Orlando's success. Comment on the word humorous here, meaning whimsical. Show how the Duke deserves the epithet by his conduct towards Rosalind and his change of feeling towards Orlando after the wrestling match, simply because he was the son of Sir Roland, whom the Duke's father hated.
4. What does Adam mean by these words ? Notice how beautifully Shakespeare clothes his ideas. He gives expres- sion to the same idea in Hamlet, " Breathing like sanctified and pious bonds, the better to beguile" (i., 3, 130).
What figure of speech is this ? What is noticeable about the two adjectives in the line ? What effect on the idea has the repetition ?
5. Notice the classical allusion, and tell the incident of Hercules and the poisoned robe.
6. What point do these words bring out in Orlando's character ? What is the meaning of " diverted blood " ?
7. What is the meaning of "thrifty"? of " hire " ? Is it the wages that are thrifty ? Give examples of this trans- ference of adjective. (Needless stream, weak evils, youthful wages.)
8 and 9. Note alliteration and metaphor, which, expanded into a simile, would run thus : —
" I should be cast aside in my old age, just as useless things are thrown into a corner." Would Orlando be the man to cast off his servant ?
10. Notice Shakespeare's religious-rnindedness in his reference to Providence.
11. Note the simile of the use of "kindly" to mean seasonable.
Class to give Orlando's speech in their own words. What do we learn of Adam from his speeches ? What is Adam's function in this play ?
Recapitulate as in matter.
3
34 Notes on Herbartian Method
PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Class — Average age, 12. Time — Half an hour. Previous Know- ledge— Subject, predicate and object (direct). Aim — To exercise pupils' understanding and teach them to generalise.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
'(a) The boy skates.
(b) The boy loves games.
(c} The good boy desires to please his
1. Examples.
master.
(d) Walking in the woods is pleasant. <(e) " Alas ! " said she.
2. Analyse above examples under head of subject, predicate,
and object.
3. Define sentence, subject, predicate, object.
II. Presentation.
((a) Subject.
(i) EssentialParts.Ub) Predicate.
[(61) Object if (b) is transitive.
'(a) Enlargements of subject.
(b) Indirect object.
(2) Non-essential
Time.
I h Parts. 1, v « • "• Place-
(c) Extension, j ...^ Manner<
l^iv. Cause. Further Examples to illustrate 2 :
1. Diligent children receive their reward at the distribu-
tion of prizes.
2. The kind master gave a holiday to his pupils yesterday.
3. He took them to London by train, as a reward. (2) continued :
(a) Enlargement consists of adjective or phrase qualifying
subject or object.
(b) Indirect object denotes person or thing indirectly af-
fected by the action, through medium of a preposition.
(c) Extension or enlargement of predicate denotes cir-
cumstances of time, place, manner or cause.
Parts of a Simple Sentence 35
III. Association.
A nalysis of last Examples.
(Subject : The master Enlargement : kind Predicate : gave Extension : yesterday (time)
Object (direct) : a holiday
(indirect) : to his pupils.
IV. Recapitulation.
What are the essential parts of a sentence ? What are the non-essential ? What does indirect object denote ? How many kinds of extension ? Give examples of each.
V. Application.
Ask class to form a sentence with direct and indirect object ; another with two kinds of extension ; also make pupils analyse : " Grateful children make a return to their parents in their old age by their love and care ".
PROCEDURE.
I. Begin lesson by asking the definition of a sentence. Ask for a few examples, and write some on blackboard, supplying some such as given in matter. Ask for the subject in each case, and what it denotes, and how found. Also for predicate. Draw from class whether predicate is complete or incomplete. If the latter, as in (a] and (e), how is it completed ? What name is given to completion ? Write analysis of one or two sentences.
II. Elicit now from class what are the necessary parts in every sentence ; then refer to (c) and (d), and ask what un- necessary words are in the subject ; what are their use ? To enlarge or give us a larger knowledge of subject, therefore called enlargement. Next give further examples (i) and (3). Ask for enlargement of subject in (i). Get class to analyse sentence. Ask to what " At the distribution " refers, and thus elicit that it enlarges or extends the meaning of the predicate, therefore is called extension. Now analyse (3), elicit the kinds of extension, and ask for other examples of extension of time, place, etc.
36 Notes on Herbartian Method
III. Lastly, give sentence (2), and point out that the master cannot give a holiday without giving it to somebody. By comparison with direct object which completes the sense directly -, show that "his pupils" completes it indirectly through a preposition. Some verbs need such a completion, e.g., give, send, take, etc. Ask examples of these, and which are the direct and which the indirect objects.
IV. To exercise class in enlargement, object and exten- sion give sentences, and ask pupils to supply different parts.
V. Lastly, write sentence in application on blackboard, and analyse it with class.
Conclude lesson by questions in matter and examples given.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING OF A PIECE OF POETRY.
Class — Oxford Preliminary Grade. Time — Half an hour. Previous Knowledge — The structure of the simple sentence. Aim — To exercise pupils' understanding and teach them to analyse.
MATTER.
Extract. — First two verses of Cowper's Boadicea. "When the British warrior Queen, Bleeding from the Roman rods, Sought with an indignant mien,
Counsel of her country's gods ; Sage beneath a spreading oak Sat the Druid, hoary chief; Every burning word [which] he spoke
[Was] Full of rage and full of grief." Herbartian Steps. I. Preparation.
1. (a) Meaning of predicate.
(b) Number of sentences depends on number of predi-
cates.
(c) Underline predicates in extract.
2, Subject to each predicate found by question who or what.
Analysis and Parsing of a Piece of Poetry 37 II. Presentation.
When . . . gods (first sentence).
Sage . . . chief (second sentence).
'Subject : The Queen
Enlargement : British warrior bleeding,
etc.
Predicate : sought Object (direct) : counsel
(indirect) : of her country's gods Extension : with an indignant mien. Subject : The Druid Enlargement : hoary chief Predicate : sat Extension : beneath a spreading oak
(place) sagefly] (manner)
.Subject : word Enlargement : every burning (third sentence), "j Predicate : was full
{Object (indirect) : of rage and grief. ( Subject : He
(Fourth sentence) J Predicate : spoke [Object : which
Parsing of words underlined :
British: Proper adj. of qual., qualif. Queen.
Bleeding : Pres. part, of irreg. intrans. verb to bleed,
referring to Queen. Sought : Irreg. trans, verb, act. v., ind. m., past tense,
3rd per. sing., to agree with subj. Queen. Country's : Com. n., 3rd per. sing., neut. g., poss. c., govd.
by gods. Gods: com. n., 3rd per. plu., com. g., obj. c., govd. by
prep. of.
Spreading : Part, adj., qual. n. oak. Sat : Irreg. intrans. verb, indie, mood, past tense, sing.,
3rd per., to agree with subject Druid. Chief: Com. n., masc. g., sing., 3rd per., nom. c., in app.
with Druid. Spoke : Irreg. trans, verb, act. v., indie, mood, past
tense, sing., 3rd per., to agree with subject he.
38 Notes on Herbartian Method
III. Association.
Rules of syntax and etymology as brought into the " procedure " column.
IV. Recapitulation.
Questions on what has been gone through, and the same bit to be written by the pupils without further help.
PROCEDURE.
I. Read the verse to be analysed. Before beginning to analyse it with class question as to what is a sentence. What parts are necessary to every sentence ? Of what must predicate consist ? What is a finite verb ? Which words are finite verbs in the extract ? Underline them. How many sentences therefore shall we have ? How is the subject found ? Now collect round each predicate the sentence which belongs to it. Is "bleeding" a finite verb? Why not ? How much is the first sentence ? (The first four lines.) What is the predicate here ? About whom are we speaking ? What then do we call the words " The queen " ? (Subject.) What are we told about the kind of queen ? What place is for words qualifying the subject ? How much of sentence is the enlargement of the subject ? Is the predicate transitive or intransitive ? If transitive, what completion must it have ? Where is the object direct here ? Is there any further completion required in the case of " seeking" here? What name is given to the gods of whom she seeks ? To what does the phrase "with an indignant mien " refer ? Where shall we put it in then ? Work out the other sentences in the same way, and let class write out the whole for home-work, or let them write one or two sentences at once in class.
Parsing : Underline some of the more difficult words in the passage for parsing. Ask pupils to parse them orally, and question as to the function of each word, in order to find the part of speech it belongs to. Ask the reason for each case given to the nouns. Lead class to distinguish between the verbal forms in " ing," and discriminate when it is a participle, when an adjective, when a noun — giving examples.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 39
In parsing chief teach the rule for nouns in apposition, and draw from class why they should agree in case, and ask for other examples of the same.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
Class— Average age, 12 years. Time— Half an hour. Aim— To exercise pupils' understanding and teach them to generalise in English grammar.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
1. Examples drawn from class.
2. Definition of sentence.
(subject )
3. Two principal parts jpredicatej meaning 01.
II. Presentation.
1. Examine examples given and deduce:
(a) Some verbs are complete in themselves. Others
require a noun or its equivalent after them.
(b) Latter express action passing over from subject
to an object. Former a state of being, or an action not passing over to an object.
^Transitive (Lat. transire = to pass
2. Two kinds of verbs -j over).
[intransitive (Lat. in = not).
III. Association.
Give short sentences, e.g., " He ran," " She broke her doll," " The boy reads well," etc. Get class to distinguish kind of verb, and give reason in each case.
IV. Recapitulation.
Definitions of transitive and intransitive verbs.
V. Application.
Get class to make six sentences with transitive and six with intransitive verbs.
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by asking for sentences from the class. Write four or five on the blackboard, choosing some
40 Notes on Herbartian Method
with objects and some without. Ask what two parts are common to all, and what each denotes.
II. In what do the sentences differ ?
Taking an example containing an ^transitive verb, ask if sense is complete with subject and predicate alone. Take a transitive verb in same way, underline verb in each case, and write complete or incomplete, as case may be, after it. vSo with all the examples. Ask why some — e.g., " The child sees a hare " — are incomplete. Elicit that one cannot see without seeing something, therefore the verb requires some- thing, i.e., a noun or its equivalent to complete its meaning. Ask for other examples of verbs incomplete without something after them. What do they express in every case ? (Action.) Give two examples, such as " The boy runs " and " The boy struck his brother". Deduce that both express actions, the difference being that one remains with the doer, the other passes to an object.
Give derivation, and draw from class the definition of transitive and intransitive verbs.
III. Next, go round class with examples, and ask what the verb expresses in each case, and to which class it belongs, and if transitive, where is the object.
IV. Briefly recapitulate by asking definition and derivation of transitive and intransitive verbs.
V. Conclude lesson by application, as in matter.
LESSON ON THE VOICE OF VERBS (ENGLISH GRAMMAR).
Class — Oxford Preliminary Grade. Time — Half an hour. Aim — To exercise the pupils' reasoning powers and lead them to discriminate between active and passive voice.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
• , . . , r u f1- Transitive. Refer to kind of verbs |2 Intrans4tive<
Draw from class examples of i.
II. Presentation.
Put examples on blackboard, or such as : i . The boy received a bicycle.
The Voice of Verbs 41
2. The child loves its parents.
3. She gave the book to the mistress.
(a) A bicycle was received by the boy.
(b) The parents are loved by the child.
(c) The book was given by her to the mistress. Compare by analysis i and (a), 2 and (b), 3 and (c). Contrast :
1. The position of boy, child, and she in each case.
2. The form of the predicate in each case.
3. What the subject denotes in each case.
4. What becomes of the former subject in (a), (b) and (c). Deduce :
In i, 2, 3 "The subject denotes the doer of the
action ". In (a), (6), (c) "The subject denotes the sufferer of.
the action ". (a) Corresponding to these two cases the verb has
two distinct forms to denote the above. (6) In the second case it consists of the verb to be plus past participle. To these changes in form of the verb the name voice is given. f Definition of voice : The change in the form of the 3.J verb to show whether the subject denotes the doer [ or the sufferer of the action.
f Active : Subject denotes the doer. Two forms ^passive . Subject denotes the sufferer. Cf. derivation actum = done, passum = suffered. 4. How the passive is formed.
III. Association.
Use of analysis throughout lesson.
IV. Application.
Exercise pupils :
1. In changing sentences from active to passive and
vice versa.
2. In telling the voice of miscellaneous examples, in each
case giving the reason.
V. Recapitulation
Of definitions of (i) voice, (2) active, (3) passive, etc.
42 Notes on Herbartian Method
PROCEDURE.
I., II. and III. Begin lesson by asking the meaning of transitive and intransitive verbs, and drawing examples of each from class. Our lesson has to deal with transitive verbs only. Put three examples of pupils' own making on blackboard ; ask where is the subject, predicate and object in each, and what the subject denotes. Underneath each example write the same idea in the passive voice, and let class analyse each. Compare the subject in each case, and the object. What does the subject denote ? What the object ? What else has changed in the sentence ? When does the change in the predicate take place? Of what does it consist in the second case ? We find, then, the verb has two forms corresponding to the function of the subject, and to these the name "voice" is given. Now give another example, e.g., "The king governs England". Question as to meaning of subject and object. What connection they have with the action of governing. Let class change the sen- tence, making the assertion about England. What follows? What does the subject now denote ? Give names active and passive connecting them with their derivations. Give some examples of verbs, e.g., "was killed," "learns," "had written," "was loved," and draw from class whether subject denotes doer or sufferer of the action in each case, which voice it is, and why. Call attention to voice belonging to the verb, not subject, and elicit definition from class. Lastly, examine forms of passive voice in sentences on blackboard, and deduce the general rule of how it is formed, verb to be plus past participle. Give one or two examples of pro- gressive active to guard against mistaking it. Contrast the subjects in each case. Also ask class why we took no account of intransitive verbs in this case.
IV. Conclude lesson by letting class apply their know- ledge by exercises in the application.
V. Recapitulation : What is voice ? How many forms are there, and what does each denote? What changes take place in making a sentence active that was passive ? etc.
The Function of Certain Words 43
LESSON ON THE FUNCTION OF CERTAIN WORDS.
Class — Oxford Preliminary Grade ; average age, 12. Time — Half an hour. Aim — To exercise reasoning powers of the class and lead them to discriminate between the different functions of words.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
1. Meaning of " parts of speech ".
2. Words are classed according to their function in a
sentence.
3. Give examples, e.g., that, back, round, well, but, and
show that they cannot always be classed if they stand alone, but must be read in a sentence.
II, Presentation.
(a) That book is mine (dist. adj., points out a noun). (6) You may have the book that is here (rel. pron.,
That.
stands for book and joins sentence).
Back.
(c) He said that you took it (conj., joins sentence).
(d) That is not so (adj., used as a noun).
(a) His back was turned (noun).
(b) He took the back seat (adj.).
(c) They back the winner (verb). .(d) They turned back (adverb). '(a) Take one round more (noun).
(b) A round table is useful (adj.). Round.\ (c) They rowwd the cape (verb).
(d) They went round (adv.).
) They went round the house (prep.). (a) The child is well (adj., only used in predicate). . (b) He knows well (adv.). ?/ ^ (c) Leave well alone (noun).
.(d) Well, how did you know it ? (interjection).
((a) You study, but do not always succeed (conj.). _ (6) Who can it be but him (prep.) = except.
1 (c) There was but one thing to do (adv.) = only. {(d) He began with a " but " (noun).
44 Notes on Herbartian Method
III. Association.
In above examples associate the classification of the word in each case with its function. Refer to definitions of different parts of speech.
IV. Application.
1. Ask pupils to classify words in examples such as:
(a) " She said that, that that, that he used was
incorrect."
(b) " They sang a round as they ran round the round
table which others watched round"
2. Give other words as "front," "after," "even," etc.,
and ask pupils to give examples showing them as different parts of speech.
V. Recapitulation
Of matter of lesson by questions.
PROCEDURE.
I., II. and III. Question class as to what we mean when we say " What part of speech is such a word? " or that it is an adjective, or a verb, etc. Show by examples that we cannot always tell the function of a word taken by itself apart from its sentence. For instance, round, back, etc. Put these on blackboard, and ask what class they belong to. Ask for or supply different examples of that, and question in each case as to what office it fulfils, e.g., in (a) it points out the word " book ". What qualifies or limits a noun ? What is that in this case then ? In (b) what does that do ? What could we put in its place ? What part of speech is it then ? What else does it do besides taking the place of the noun ? Can we ever use that to join sentences only ? Give examples (c). Lastly, give the fourth example, and ask what is its function here. Then recapitulate the four parts of speech that can be, and elicit other examples of each from the class.
IV. Treat the other words in a similar manner, and after going through all the words in the matter, write the sentences
Elements of English Language 45
given in Part IV. (Application) on the blackboard, and let the class write to what part of speech each of the words in italics belongs ; then correct aloud, making the pupils give reasons in each case.
V. Recapitulation questions :
What must .we know about a word before being able to classify it ?
What parts of speech can that be ? Also well, back and but.
Give examples of well, back and but used as nouns.
What are the following words in italics ? Why are they so classed ?
Front seat. The front of the house. In after years. After you. Afterwards.
NOTES OF LESSON ON ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Class — Oxford Seniors ; age, 15 to 17. Time — Fifty minutes. Illus- trations— Use map of Europe for I., and put chart on blackboard. Aim — To increase knowledge of historical grammar ; to lead class to connect historical events and growth of language.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
1. Who the English were, and whence they came.
2. Who were their predecessors, and whither they were
driven.
(a) Erse or Iberians, to Ireland and Scotch High-
lands.
(b) Britons, to Wales and Cornwall.
3. English nation was the only conquered nation that
preserved its own tongue.
4. Story of creation of the English language.
II. Presentation.
Teutonic branch of Aryan language, i. Source. Low German dialect akin to Dutch,
Flemish, Danish, Icelandic.
46
Notes on Herbartian Method
Foreign ments.
Ele-
\a) Keltic.
(b) Scandinavian.
(c) Latin (Norman French).
(d) Greek and Hebrew.
(e) Almost all modern languages.
Periods of influx of above additions :
i. Words direct from ancient f Rivers : Avon, Ouse.
Britons. [Mountains: Pen, Ben.
ii. Words lately introduced)
through modern authors, I clan' Plaid' Pibr<*h, chiefly Sir Walter Scott. I slo^an' etc'
Through Danish P™" ^/T'l "A"*?'" 6°° /" East of England alone; also Invasion and^ r n ,. , ,
Settlement. [ M> ' rth> thorPe> vlllaSe' klrk'
f
i. Early Latin.
ii. Norman French, 1066.
iii. Later Latin.
dairy, plough.
(1) Roman occupation, B.C. fstreet'
43tOA.D. 410: ] colony,
t-caster.
(2) Conversion to Christi- faltar,
unity, A.D. 596 : words j chalice, relating to church : [creed.
(1) WTho the Normans were, and
what was their influence on Latin.
(Feudalism : Chivalry, joust, lance, vassal.
(2) Feudal- Chase : Brace, forest,
ism. I venison.
Law : Assize, attorney, chancellor.
(3) Largest influx took place at this
period.
(1) Through Renaissance : fall of
Constantinople, 1453 ; words chiefly classical.
(2) Contrast pure Latin form with
the mutilated form of Norman influence.
Elements of English Language 47
i. Through Latin with Christianity: Deacon, anthem, £ I martyr.
ii. Through classics and science : Thermometer, tele- phone.
German : Meerschaum, poodle, Dutch. Italian and Spanish : In music, etc. ^ ^1 American: Wigwam, squaw, cannibal, tobacco. African : Gypsy, canary, morocco.
O
Indian : Rajah, ayah, etc. ^ ^Russian : Knout, drosky, Czar.
III. Association.
1. Connect words derived from other languages with our
relations with different nations.
2. Show how we in a similar way influence the language
of other countries.
IV. Recapitulation.
1. Summary of chief elements of English language.
2. Examples of each.
V. Application.
Classify the following according to their origin : Boy, steppe, phonograph, canon, volcano, canoe, Whitby, ama- teur, shillelagh, wall, vizor.
BLACKBOARD DIAGRAM. Elements of English Language.
English.
Latin (including Norman French).
Italian, Spanish, American, Russian, Hebrew, Indian, etc.
48 Notes on Herbartian Method
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by questioning on the ancient in- habitants of Britain and their successive conquerors ; thus explain the difference of language of the Scotch, Welsh, Irish. Refer briefly to the invasion of the Romans, Picts and Scots, Angles and Saxons, Danes and Normans. Draw from class that our present tongue must be a great mixture, made up largely from those of the above-named nations and other contributions, and tell the little legend about the English being forgotten at Babel.
II. Tell the class source (i) of our language, and its indirect connection with all the other European tongues through the Aryan family (Lapps and Finns excepted). Draw from class foreign elements by referring to history, and write (2) on blackboard. Now we shall consider each in particular, and see how and when it influenced our language.
(a) Keltic : The language of the ancient Britons. Where were they driven ? Very few words of their language survived. What names were most likely to remain after them ? Elicit words expressing physical features, e.g., rivers — Ax, Usk, etc.; mountains — Pen, Ben. Again, in modern times many Irish and Scotch words have crept in through popular authors who chose subjects relating to these nations. Draw from class such authors, and elicit the words in matter by giving their meaning.
(b) When did English proper begin to be spoken ? By whom ? Who were the next invaders of the land ? (Danes.) Where did they settle ? Whence did they come originally ? Becoming settlers in the land, how did they influence the language principally ? Refer to their agricultural tastes : such words as dairy , plough. Also give terminations " by," " thorpe," and ask examples of names of places. Where are all such names found ? Why in East of England ?
(c) We now come to by far the largest element in the language, i.e., the Latin element. Its influx may be divided into three periods, according to the time of the different
Elements of English Language 49
additions made. The character of words introduced de- pended much on the cause of introduction. By questioning in history draw from class the words of the i. Early Latin Period, both from Roman occupation and introduction of Christianity. Ask where Christianity came from originally, and show that many of these ecclesiastical words were of Greek and Hebrew origin. ii. In a similar manner elicit the Norman French Period. Ask how it comes under the head Latin. How words thus introduced are likely to differ from classical Latin. Why was the Norman French in- fluence so much greater than that of previous foreign elements ? Refer to the struggle between French and Anglo-Saxon or old English for the mastery for two centuries, the one spoken at Court, the other by the conquered serfs. Compare German and English of the present day to show the work done during those centuries. Ask class for some examples of words relating to feudalism, chase and law. Why are they Norman French ? iii. For the next Latin Period refer to 1453. Fall of Constantinople, and the results on the learning of the age. Ask in what the Latin and Greek words now introduced differed from the earlier additions. How account for this ?
(d) Greek : Besides words introduced through Latin with Christianity and those of the Renaissance, there is a steady influx to meet the needs of the science of the present day. Ask for examples of words for modern inventions. Why is Greek chosen for coining these new words ?
(e) Finally, refer to acquisitions which must come from intercourse, commercial or otherwise, with other nations, and draw from class examples of these, some such as in Matter V. Point out that we give as well as take in this way, e.g., French : nous five-o'clockerons, high-life (hig-lif), bifteck, tennis, cricket, etc.
Recapitulation : The English language has for its basis the Anglo-Saxon and Low German dialect of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan family. Its vocabulary consists mostly of Latin words, however, introduced chiefly at three different periods. (Ask time and character of each.) It also contains
4
50 Notes on Herbartian Method
contributions from Greek (when and how). Keltic (ditto), Danish, and nearly all modern languages. (A few examples.) Conclude lesson by drawing diagram, and asking the words given in the Application.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON SYNONYMS.
Class — Age, 16 to 17 years. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To increase knowledge of historical grammar, and to lead class to connect historical events and growth of language.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
. rSyn = with, onoma = a name — a name i. Nominal defim- 1 of wofd haying the game meaning
tionofterm. another.
(Terms of like significance in the main Dn'{ with slight differences established. '(a) Exact meaning not generally appre- hended : hence looseness of use of
Why there are comparatively few true syno-
words.
(6) Shades of meaning arise from this cause, and usage gives one to one
nyms. word and a different one to its
synonym.
(c) Differences of etymology. 4. Why English r (a) Vocabulary mainly derived from two has many ap- 1 sources — Latin and English, parent syno-1 (b) Two forms off i. Norman French, nyms. Latin element. \ii. Classic.
II. Presentation, i. Examples of:
English. Norman French.
(Begin Commence.
Will Testament.
.Buy Purchase.
n>rms- Hearty Cordial.
IWish Desire.
Synonyms
English. fLimb
(6) Different shades ) Luck of meaning. I Work Bough
Norman French. Member (of society). Fortune (riches). Labour (hard work). Branch (of sea, etc.).
2. Cause : Norman and Saxon intercourse.
|
Later Latin. (Derivation.) Norman Fr. |
|
|
Examples of Latin doublets (apparent sy- nonyms), same words in dif- ferent forms. J |
Benediction (Benedictionem) Benison. Pauper (Pauperem) Poor. Example (Exemplum) Sample. Fragile (Fragilem) Frail. Separate (Separatum) Sever. |
|
How shorter |
|
|
forms of Nor- |
Spoken language tends to shorten |
|
man French |
words. |
|
are accounted |
Words introduced through writing keep |
|
for. |
their full form. |
|
Greek doublets^ Through (Qr Der) Later Forms. |
|
|
/ \ iV OWHClHSt (apparent sy- Fancy (Phantasia) Phantasy. nonyms). dif- K , * / r Palsy (Paralysis) Paralysis, ferent shades _. * ;0 ; \. \ „ /, f Slander (Scandalon) Scandal, ot meaning. ) |
III. Association.
1 . Connect change of meaning with cause where possible.
2. Show how for better mutual understanding yokes of
words came to be used ; e.g. —
Acknowledge and confess. Aid and abet. Mirth and jollity.
IV. Recapitulation.
As to : i. Meaning and kinds of synonyms.
2. Difference between doublets and synonyms.
3. How former came to exist.
4. Examples of all.
V. Application.
Class to supply synonyms in a passage set.
52 Notes on Herbartian Method
Blackboard Sketch.
1. Definition.
r i r • f(a) Usage.
2. Causes of shades of meaning. |(6) Etymology<
3. Norman French influence.
[Latin.
4. Doublets.|Greek
PROCEDURE.
I. Begin lesson by giving derivation of words, and ask- ing the meaning. Draw distinction between nominal and real definitions of them ; according to the former the words should agree exactly, but according to the latter there are essential resemblances but partial differences of meaning, e.g., shepherd and pastor. Ask for some other examples of synonyms, suggesting such words as forgive, limb, buy, work, sympathy, etc. Ask how the shades of difference in mean- ing can be explained (i) by custom and looseness of ordinary speech, (2) by etymology.
Examples of:
1. Famine and hunger, ghost and spirit.
2. Felicitate and congratulate.
Criticise etymological distinctions between following by examining derivations of each :
J Arrogant (ad rogo), homage demanded as due.
\ Presumptuous (prae sumo), homage taken before due.
( Felicitate, to wish happiness to. 2' \ Congratulate, to rejoice with another.
( Invent (in venio), to make what did not exist before. 3' [ Discover, to show that which existed.
J Desert. ) Refer to James II. and Commons, as in
| Abdicate. J Trench.
II. Refer to former lesson on sources of our vocabu- lary, and ask whether English is likely to have many or few synonyms, and why. Show that in many cases the Norman French superseded the English, and vice versa; but that the two have been retained in many instances, though the tendency
Synonyms 53
to discriminate between the uses of the two leads to our having few perfect synonyms. Ask class for the synonyms of wretched, cordial, testament. (Refer to technical or law language, "This is the last will and testament of . . .". Draw from class reason for having two words.) Next lead class to examine how others have slightly differed in meaning through constant usage, e.g., shepherd, love, kingdom, freedom, luck, deed, bough, etc. ; also, fancy and imagination, fanaticism and enthusiasm, feminine and effeminate, famine and hunger.
III. Refer again to Latin element in English; ask the different periods at which the influxes took place, and what differences would naturally be seen between the words intro- duced through the French and those of the later classical period. Show that some words introduced by the Normans were reintroduced in a more classical form at the Renaissance. (Give Norman French, and draw second form from class in some cases, and in others give Latin derivation, and elicit both.) Call attention to the change in the word itself, and to the change in meaning.
Treat Greek doublets in same way.
Next show that, owing to the various sources of our vocabulary, we have even some triplets, viz., English, Latin and Greek or Norman French.
Give English, and let class discover the'other synonyms.
English. Latin. Greek. N. F.
Fellow-feeling. Compassion. Sympathy. Kingly. Regal. Royal.
Explain differences in form causing doublets, by the contractions used in daily speech, varieties of pronunciation, etc.
IV. Recapitulate briefly as to meaning of synonyms; their use. Why England has so many. How doublets came into the language. What is the tendency of the language as to the use of synonyms.
Conclude lesson by reading the passage from Ivanhoe which brings out the Norman French influence in the forma-
54
Notes on Herbartian Method
tion of synonyms, and show the meanings naturally differed from the very circumstances of the case, and question class as to its application.
LESSON ON THE CHANGE OF MEANING OF WORDS.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To exercise judgment of the class and interest them in discovering the laws which govern the change of meaning of words.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
f i. Passage from one language to another. Causes of Changes.^ Passage from one age to anothen
II. Presentation.
Laws of Changes. -\
( i. Change of Association : Plum, prune, raisin, heathen, pagan, gossip.
2. Law of Contraction : As the number
of words increase the province of each diminishes (especially measure- ment), foot, stone, acre, furlong, perch (poke, a bag), bushel (little box), chant, preach, speculation, extravagant, censure.
3. Law of Metaphor : When foreign
words are side by side with native in meaning, as videre = to see, the latter retain ordinary meaning, and the former — (a) Abstract or philosophical term —
vision.
(6) Extraordinary sense — vision, provident.
4. Law of Extension : Wider meaning,
especially as regards war and law,
Laws of Changes.
The Change of Meaning of Words 5 5
e.g., influence, formerly a term in as- trology, triumph, privilege (law for individual), legion, character, paper. Law of Deterioration : Caused by a difference in the moral sense — cunning, craft, impertinent (not to
the point), officious (exact in per-
formance of duty), villain, knave. 6. Law of Amelioration: Improved in meaning, as humility, fond, minister, servant, Whig and Tory, Christian, generous, gentle (noble birth).
III. Association.
Compare with changes of manners and customs, which are results of changes of thought, in :
1. Education.
2. Living, furniture, dress and fashion.
3. War.
IV. Application.
Words changed in meaning illustrated from As You Like It : Conceit, amaze, taxation, character.
V. Recapitulation.
i. Causes of (Passage from one language to another, change. \ from one age to another.
(Examples : Association, contraction, metaphor, extension, deterioration, amelioration.
PROCEDURE.
I. Give some examples to pupils, such as chant, preach, raisin, beef — words derived from other languages, and in the passage have lost meaning in the original language, and thus have a slightly different meaning in English. Also give examples like villain, conceit, amaze, censure, knave, as examples of change occurring in passage from one age to another. The words that change in meaning are many and
56 Notes on Herbartian Method
various, and cannot be classified exactly, but only in a very general way.
II. i. There are six laws (general) which have governed the alteration in meaning of many of our words. Here give examples, such as plum, prune, raisin, heathen, pagan, gossip, clumsy, disaster, gazette, and from the derivation of each deduce law of change by association, e.g., raisin = grape in French, to us = dried grapes, as this is the particular association we give to grapes from France ; heathen = living on a heath, and as the religion of such was non-Christian, we associated this fact with the dwelling-place, and hence heathen means pagan.
2. Give examples, as foot, acre, furlong, peck, bushel, chant, preach, etc., and from derivation elicit that meaning has contracted, as chant, from cantare = to sing, but to us applied to a particular kind of singing.
3. Give examples, as vision, from visum = seen, used side by side with see and sight, but in altered sense ; also, palliate = to throw a cloak over, transferred to lessen, find excuse for. Trivial = where three roads meet, means common or unimportant.
4. Give examples of influence, triumph, privilege = law for individual, and now any special favour granted ; legion, character, paper, boor (boer = a Dutch farmer); explosion = hissing offthe stage; harbinger = prepare harbour or lodging. What can we remark about these changes ? Has the meaning contracted ? Compare with Law 3.
5. Give examples, as villain, knave, impertinent, cun- ning = obsolete, pres. participle of verb caw; censure, churl = country man — now disobliging person ; officious, insolent = unusual — now rude ; conceit = thought : what is cause due to here ? The idea conveyed by word has altered in its moral sense. What is the reason of this ?
6. In an opposite way words have risen and improved in meaning. Ask original meaning of humility, fond, minister, Whig and Tory, generous, gentle, companion, shrewd = wicked — now means clever. These words faJl under law of "Amelioration ",
Translation of a Selected Passage from French 57
Summary : Words change their meaning by passing from one language to another, and by passing from one age to another, therefore we cannot tell the acknowledged meaning by derivation always. Six laws govern these changes — the Laws of Association, Metaphor, Contraction, Extension, Deterioration and Amelioration.
Recapitulation : What do I mean by the law of contrac- tion ? Give examples. The law of association ? Give examples. Which law is exemplified in the words : com- passion, church, minister, disease, trivial, fond, impertinent, privilege, palliate, villain, speculation.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE TRANSLA- TION OF A SELECTED PASSAGE FROM FRENCH.
Class — Average age, 15. Time — Forty minutes. Aim — To lead class to note difference between English and French modes of expression, and to express following passage in good English.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
i. Class will read passage through to get a general knowledge of its meaning, which they will give in their own words.
II. Presentation.
On dit que Sir Isaac Newton etait d'une humeur egale et douce, qu'aucun accident ne pouvait le troubler ; on raconte a ce sujet 1'anecdote remarquable que voici : Sir Isaac, avait un petit chien favori qui s'appelait Diamant. Un soir qu'il avait du passer dans une chambre a cote, Diamant resta seul. A son retour, Sir Isaac, qui n'avait etc absent que quelques minutes, cut le chagrin de voir que Diamant, en renversant une bougie, avait mis le feu a des papiers qui con- tenaient le travail a peu pres acheve de plusieurs
58 Notes on Herbartian Method
annees. Ses papiers s'etaient enflammes et avaient etc presque entierement mis en cendres. Cette perte considerant 1'age avance de Newton, etait irrepar- able ; mais, sans punir le chien : " Ah ! Diamant," s'ecria-t-il, " tu ne sais pas quel mal tu viens de faire." Words in italics to be commented on.
III. Association.
1. On dit may be translated by "it is said" or " they
say ". This construction is one way of avoiding passive voice, which is less frequently used in French than in English. Example : " On vous demande," "you are wanted"; "on m'a dit," "I was told"; " on 1'a renvoye," " he was dismissed ".
2. Qui s'appelait : Another way of rendering the passive.
Translate by " who was called " or " whose name was ". Other examples are : " Cela se mange vert," " that is eaten green " ; " Les portes s'ouvraient," " the doors were opened ".
3. Anecdote remarquable : Usual position of adjective is
after the noun, adjectives of colour always ; e.g., chapeau blanc, robe noire, etc. Some adjectives precede the noun, especially those of one syllable ; e.g., beau, bon, digne, etc., " un beau cheval ".
4. Petit chien favori : When two adjectives accompany
a noun one precedes and the other follows, " une belle rose blanche," " une petite fille intelligente ".
5. Mis le feu : Different meanings of mettre —
(a) To put on, " mettre son chapeau ".
(b) To begin, " elle se mit a pleurer ".
(61) " fitre mis," "to be dressed," "une personne bien mise".
6. Annees instead of ans when used with an adjective to
denote the whole duration, " toute 1'annee".
7. Renversant, pres. part, after prep, en ; all other preposi-
tions require infinitive — "de venir," "pour faire," etc.
8. Viens de faire : "Venir de," followed by an infinitive
= " to have just . . .". Other examples.
Translation of a Selected Passage from French 59
IV. Recapitulation.
Passage will be translated through quickly by a member of the class.
V. Application.
Class will answer questions in French on the subject- matter as in procedure, or similarly.
PROCEDURE.
I. Begin lesson by letting a pupil read through passage aloud for the class, and then give in a few words its general meaning.
II. Then take each sentence, and let member of the class give its exact meaning, and then polish each one until it reads quite smoothly.
III. Then take each of the passages in italics in matter, and deal with them somewhat after following manner : —
1. On dit, on raconte : Ask some one to translate again, and point out difference between the English and French usages. Let class supply other examples.
2. Qui s'appelait : Ask a member of the class to translate this. Show how this form is often used to avoid the passive voice, which is less frequent in French than in English. Let class supply more examples, and then ask them to translate such sentences as " What is his name ? " " His name is Charles," etc. Give class more examples as in matter.
3. Anecdote rernarquable, petit chien favori : Let class point out how the French differs from English with regard to position of adjectives. In English they are placed after the noun sometimes for effect, in French they are sometimes placed before for the same reason.
4. Get more examples from class. Give class some examples of a noun qualified by two adjectives, and then let them supply others, some of which may be written on board. Let class point out how the French usage differs from English, viz., in placing one adjective before and the other
60 Notes on Herbartian Method
after. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, es- pecially if the adjectives are of one syllable — Une bonne petite fille.
5. Mis le feu : Give some examples to class, such as J'ai mis mon chapeau ; elle se mit a pleurer ; voila une per- sonne bien mise, and let them say what different meanings mettre may have.
6. Annees : Give a few examples, using the words ans and annees. II a ete la il y a trois ans. Nous avons eu une tres bonne annee. Let class point out difference in use. Annee generally used instead of ans when accom- panied with an adjective to denote the whole duration of time.
7. Renversant : What part of verb is this ? What pre- cedes it ? What part of speech is en in this case ? Let them supply other examples of the same kind. Then give examples of other prepositions, and let class point out how the construc- tion differs. Example : J'ai besoin d'une plume pour ecrire. J'ai envie d'ecrire maintenant. II commence a pleuvoir, etc. En is the only preposition which is followed by present participle.
8. Viens de faire : Ask class to translate again, and show that venir de followed by an infinitive means "to have just"; while venir a means " to happen ". Get several other examples from class.
IV. Let a member of the class translate passage through again quickly.
V. Class will now close books and answer questions set to them.
Que savez-vous de 1'humeur de Sir Isaac Newton ? Etait ce facile de le troubler ? Aimait-il les animaux ? Qu'est ce qui vous fait penser 9a ? Comment s'appelait-il ce petit chien ? Qu'a-t-il fait un jour etant seul dans la chambre ? Comment se fit-il que Diamant restat seul ? Que vit Sir Isaac a son retour ? Se facha-t-il ? Que dit-il ?
The Formation of the Plural of French Nouns 61
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF FRENCH NOUNS.
Class — Average age, 14. Time — Half hour. Aim — To point out to class the reason for the various irregularities in the plural of nouns.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
Refer to the modern formation of plural of the nouns in English. This formation came from the Norman French as one of the results of the Conquest.
II. and III. Presentation and Association.
General Rule.
Reason for 5 rather than any other letter.
Certain endings we must look to in consider- ing plural of nouns.
(i) Nouns ending in 5, x. z.
Add 5 to the singular. Ex. : le jardin, les jardins.
French language borrowed from the Latin accusative both its singular and its plural : the letter 5 was generally the sign of the accusative plural in Latin. Ex. : rosas = roses ; homines = hommes ; sonos = sons ; planities = plaines.
(a) s, xy z: fils, voix, nez.
(b) auy ou, en : chapeau, clou, neveu.
(c) al, ail : cheval, gouvernail.
If not ending in one of these ways we know that the plural is formed by adding 5.
( Remain same in plural. -I La voix, les voix. Le lis, les lis. Le [ nez, les nez, etc. Take x in plural.
(2) Nouns ending in au. eu.
Le chapeau, les chapeaux.
Le neveu, les neveux.
One ex. to | landau(s) each. j bleu (s).
62
Notes on Herbartian Method
Nouns ending in ( Follow general rule. Le cou, les cous; exc.
on.
bijou.
caillou.
chou.
genou. hiboujoujou, pou,
which take x. TOne of the relics of old French. In Reason for this! Middle Ages we find z or x for s ; irregularity, j thus voiz for voix, nex for nez.
[This licence has survived in bijou, etc. rbal, cal,
carnaval, chacal,
, v TvT ,. f Change al into^
(3) Nouns ending! I
in al.
aux. hexc.
Cheval,chevaux,J
Reasons for this.
regal, and about ten more which follow general rule. In early French al became in plural
als : cheval, chevals. In thirteenth century al = au before a
consonant : chevau-leger. Chevals then became chevaus, and sub- sequently chevaux.
,. . f Follow general fbail. Nouns ending in .,
J tMil^k • fYf\ 1 1 \ 7 £* r _ ' r*/"\i*Q i
ail.
-i rule : gouver--^ corail, email, soupirail. I nail (s) ; exc. [travail, vantail, vitrail. Same remark applies to these as to nouns in al.
L'aieul, Les ai'eux, ancestors; Les a'ieuls,
grandfathers. Le ciel, Les ciels, skies in paintings ; Les
cieux, heavens. L'oeil, Les yeux, eyes; Les ceils (in
compounds). Le travail, Les travails, brakes; Les
Four nouns with irregular, in
addition to the regular plural.
travaux, works.
The irregular plural generally has the same signification as the singular, while the regular gives the noun a peculiar signification.
The Formation of the Plural of French Nouns 63
IV. Recapitulation.
Question on the foregoing rules.
V. Application.
Get from class a number of examples with their plurals.
BLACKBOARD SKETCH. Formation of plural of French nouns.
(Add s to sing., therefore the sign of Lat. i. General Rule. \
ace. pi.
(a) 5, x, z remain same in plural.
tau, eu take x, except lan- dau and bleu.
ou takes 5, except seven : bijou, caillou, chou, genou, joujou, hibou, pou, which take x.
al change into aux, ex- cept bal, etc.
2. Endings to be* looked to.
(b) au, ou, eu.-
(c) al, ail.
3 Nouns with ir
| ail follow general rule, ex- { cept seven : bail, etc.
ouns with ir-\
i ±7 i } ai'eul, ciel, travail, ceil. egular plural.}
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by questioning class on modern formation of plural of English nouns. Whence do we get this plural ? When did French begin to influence the English language ? The French language then must have formed its plural in same way. Hence general rule is to add s to sing.
Then get a few examples from class, and ask meaning of "general rule ".
II. and III. Now there is a reason for the choice of s rather than any other letter.
From what language is French derived ? Tell class that majority oi French nouns are formed from Latin accusatives, not nominatives. Get some examples from class as in matter, and let them say that s is present in all the declen-
64 Notes on Herbartian Method
sions in the accusative plural. Hence the s in French in accordance with etymology.
The first thing we are to look to when asked to form plural of a French noun is the termination, because the plural depends upon this. Ask various examples from class, and supply any endings which class fails to give, then classify them on blackboard. Three classes : —
(1) Nouns ending in s, x, z.
(2) au, ou, eu.
(3) al, ail.
These are the only three classes of endings we need trouble about. Then consider each in turn.
(1) Write a few examples on board, putting the nouns in the plural. Ex. : Get arbre est couvert de belles noix. Ma soeur m'a donne trois lis. Les grands nez. Let class say these remain same in plural as in singular, and supply other examples of same ending.
(2) Write examples on board, and let class give rule as for (i).
(3) Write examples of nouns in ou, choosing also some of the exceptions, e.g., bijou, etc. Let class say that some take 5, others x in plural. Then give the seven exceptions. Point out cause for this. In Middle Ages 5, x and z were used indiscriminately — voiz or voix. This licence has survived in seven words — bijou, etc.
The third class of endings, those in al, ail. Write examples on board, and let class give rule. Then give the seven exceptions.
Reason for the aux. In early French nouns in al followed general rule. In the thirteenth century al was softened into au before a consonant, e.g., chevau-leger. Chevals then became chevaus, and as x and 5 were used indiscriminately, it gradually became chevaux. The old plural survived in a few words. Write them on board.
Nouns in ail. Write examples on board, and let class supply rule as before.
Then write nouns with irregular plural as in matter, and draw from class that the irregular plural leaves the noun the
Rules for the Agreement of Past Participles in French 65
same signification as it has in singular, while the regular imparts a peculiar signification.
IV. What is the general rule for forming plural of French nouns ? Why s ? What have we to look to when asked to form plural of a noun ? Which endings particularly con- cern us ? How is plural of nouns ending in s, x, z formed ? Give example. Plural of nouns ending in au, eu, ou ? Which of those in ou take x ? Why ? Plural of nouns ending in al? Why? Give some exceptions. Nouns in ail ? Mention some nouns with irregular plurals. What meaning does the regular plural give to the noun ? Give an example.
V. Let class write down quickly plural of chou, clou, cardinal, chapeau, landau, bleu, neveu, and similar examples.
NOTES OF A FIRST LESSON ON THE RULES
FOR THE AGREEMENT OF PAST
PARTICIPLES IN FRENCH.
Class — Average age, 14. Time — Half an hour. Aim — To give class an accurate knowledge of the agreement of past participles.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
A word of comparison between English and French grammar as to the number of inflexions. In English few inflexions ; in French many. Words related to each other must be in agreement. Adjectives must agree with the nouns to which they refer ; likewise past participles.
II. Presentation.
i. Examples: Des merites recompenses. Des bonheurs passes. Des lettres bien forties. Une personne etonnee. Un devoir bien fait.
5
66 Notes on Herbartian Method
Deduce Rule i. Past participle used without an auxiliary performs function of an adjective ; therefore agrees in gender and number with noun to which it refers.
2. Examples : II est venu. Elle est venue.
II sera arrive. Elle sera arrivee.
Us sont venus. Elles sent venues.
Us seront alles. Elles seront allies.
Deduce Rule 2. Past participle conjugated with auxiliary etre agrees in gender and number with the subject of the verb.
3. Examples : (a) II a chante.
Elle a chante. Us ont chante. Elles ont chante.
Deduce that past participle conjugated with avoir does not depend on the subject.
(b) J'ai vu le roi.
Nous avons vu la reine.
Vous avez vu les rois.
Elles ont vu les reines.
Difference between (a) and (b), but no difference in parti- ciple ; therefore past participle conjugated with avoir remains invariable (i) when without an object, (2) when object fol- lows.
(c) Les rois que j'ai vus sont morts.
La lettre que vous avez ecrite est sur la table. Les devoirs que vous avez ecrits sont sur le pupitre. Les reines que j'ai vues sont tres belles. Deduce that past participle conjugated with auxiliary avoir agrees in gender and number with direct object when this, precedes.
Avez-vous re9u de ses nouvelles ? Oui j'en ai re9u. Avez-vous des fruits ? Oui ma sceur m'en a donne. Show that it is only with direct object that participle agrees.
III. Association.
More examples to illustrate foregoing rules.
Rules for the Agreement of Past Participles in French 67
IV. Recapitulation. Questions on above matter.
V. Application.
Class supply examples, giving reason for agreement or non-agreement of participles.
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by comparing the English and French languages with regard to the number of inflexions, and let class point out that the English language has com- paratively few,, and the French many. Get from class a few examples of agreement in French, e.g., adjectives agreeing with nouns to which they refer.
II. Write Examples i on board, and draw from class the function of the participle in each case. That of an adjec- tive, therefore what rule of agreement must it follow ? The same as the adjective, i.e., it takes the gender and number of the noun to which it refers. Let class supply other examples, and then write one or two of them on board.
Write Examples 2 on board. Let class point out dif- ference between the use of these participles and those of Examples i. With what part of the sentence does each agree ? Then let class state rule, and supply a few examples : Elle est couchee. La mere est arrivee. Le pere est parti. Les enfants sont tombes, etc.
Write Examples 3 (a) on board. Let class point out the different auxiliary, i.e., avoir, likewise that the participle does not depend on the subject, since it is invariable in each case, though the subjects are of different genders and numbers. Get other examples of same kind from class.
Write (b) on board, and let class point out difference between these sentences and those in (a). Draw attention to non-agreement of participle. Then let class state rule. Past participle conjugated with avoir remains invariable when there is no object, or when the object follows the participle.
68 Notes on Herbartian Method.
Write sentences (c) on board. Ask gender and number of participle in each case. Then let class point out in each sentence a word of the same gender and number as participle, excepting, of course, the subject, since participles conjugated with avoir do not depend upon the subject. Ask function of this word in sentence, and what position it occupies with regard to participle. Then let class state the rule. Past participle conjugated with avoir agrees in gender and number with the direct object when preceded by that object.
Write some examples on board, such as : Avez-vous re9u de ses nouvelles ; Oui j'en ai re9u, and draw from class that it is only with the direct object that the participle agrees.
III. Let class supply examples of various kinds, and then analyse participle in each case.
IV. Question in the following or a similar manner : State rule for the agreement of past participles conjugated without an auxiliary. When used in this way to what part of speech is the past participle equivalent ? Give examples. How does the past participle agree when conjugated with auxiliary etre ? With auxiliary avoir ? When does past participle conjugated with avoir remain invariable ? etc.
V. Class to take pencil and paper and write down sentences from dictation, applying foregoing rules to participle.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON SELECTED FRENCH IDIOMS.
Class —Average age, 15. Time — Half an hour. Aim — To teach by comparison the use of French idioms.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
1. Meaning of an f Mode of expression peculiar to any
idiom. i language.
f Because it necessitates an acquaintance
2. Why difficult with the minds of the people in ques,
for foreigners.
Selected French Idioms 69
3. A few examples of English idioms : How do you do ? What is the matter ? To carry the day. To owe a grudge.
II. and III. Presentation and Association.
1. // ny a pas de petit chez soi.
I There is nothing small in one's own house ; or, People do not find their house too small. Idea same in both languages. English equivalent : There's no place like home.
2. Chat echaude craint Veaufroide. Literally, a scalded
cat fears cold water.
(We fear that which has caused us suffer- ing. Idea is same as in English, but manner of expressing it in French is somewhat more forcible. English equivalent : A burnt child dreads the fire.
3. jfe n'en peux mais. Literally, I am capable of no
more — mais (Lat. magis), " more ".
«I cannot do otherwise. Idea same in both languages ; therefore if one can- not do otherwise one cannot help what one is doing. English equivalent : I cannot help it.
4. Passer une nuit blanche. Literally, to pass a white
night.
Blanche or blanc denotes the absence of that which one expects to find in the
Meaning.
ordinary course of things, in this case
sleep ; therefore nuit blanche = a sleep- less night.
IV Recapitulation. |As jn dure
V. Application. J
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by asking what is meant by an idiom. Why are the idioms of any language difficult to foreigners ? Get some examples of idioms in English.
70 Notes on Herbartian Method
II. and III. Write i on board. Draw from class its meaning (literal), and that if people do not find their house too small they are likely to be satisfied, and will not want to change, therefore, No place like home.
Write 2 on board. Class translate literally. Put English of echaude on blackboard. Draw from class the meaning of the idiom. The idea is same in both languages, each denoting a shrinking from something that has caused suffering, therefore, A burnt child dreads the fire.
Write 3 on board. Show connection between mais and Latin magis — more. Deduce meaning, I cannot do other- wise. Idea same in both languages, I cannot help it.
Write 4 on board. Refer to expression " carte blanche," which means perfect freedom. "Carte blanche " meaning, as it were, a card on which one can fill in anything one chooses. Draw from class meaning of blanche, i.e., absence of what one expects to find in the natural course of things. At night one looks for sleep, hence blanche — sleepless. Idea here differs from the English.
IV. Recapitulation : What is an idiom ? What is the equivalent of II n'y a pas de petit chez soi ? What is the meaning of the idiom ? What is the equivalent of Je n'en peux mais ? From what is mais derived. Give the French equivalent of To pass a sleepless night. What is the meaning of blanche in the like expressions ?
V. Application • Class will answer following questions by making use of the proper idiom : Vous avez Tair fatigue qu'avez-vous ? N'avez-vous pas bien dormi cette nuit ? Passez-vous souvent des nuits blanches ? N'osez-vous plus vous promener a cheval ? Pourquoi pas ? Quelle excuse fait-on lorsque 1'on ne veut pas se corriger de quelque faute ? Vous etes done content de revoir votre pays et d'etre de nouveau chez vous ?
Rebellions in the Reign of Henry VI L
71
NOTES OF A LESSON ON REBELLIONS IN THE REIGN OF HENRY VII.
Class — Age, 13 to 15 years. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Previous Knowledge — General outline of reign of Henry VII. Aim — To exercise imagination of the class and lead them to interest themselves in the causes and results of these rebellions.
I. Preparation.
General Causes.
II. Presentation.
MATTER.
Defective title of Henry VII.
Presence of real heir.
Henry's partiality to Lancastrians.
i. LAMBERT SIMNEL, 1487.
i. Personated Earl of Warwick, son of
George of Clarence, ii. Joined by Irish and Germans. kiii. Disproved by exhibition of real heir. "o oppose Henry and place the Earl or
Warwick on the throne, i. Defeat at Stoke by Earl of Oxford, ii. Simnel captured and placed in king's
kitchen.
(b\ Ob' t
(c] Result
I iii. Elizabeth crowned to please Yorkists.
2. PERKIN WARBECK, 1495.
/ Personated Richard, Duke of York, sup- posed to have escaped from the
(a) Leader. 4 Tower.
Sought help from Ireland, Scotland, V France and Flanders.
(b) Object. To put Warbeck on the throne.
(Warbeck's failure in Ireland.
France. Treaty of Estaples, 1492. / \ n jfo i Flanders. Great Intercourse.
• Insurgents land at Deal. Warbeck sails to Ireland and thence to Scotland.
72 Notes on Hcrbartian Method
I James IV.'s marriage with Cath. Gordon. Joined Cornish rebellion, defeated at («) Results. Taunton.
Warbeck imprisoned in the Tower. Attempted escape with Warwick. Exe- cuted, 1499. IV. Recapitulation and Summary.
The causes of the rebellions in this reign were (i) The defective title of Henry VII., (2) Presence of real heir, (3) Partiality to Lancastrians. The first rebellion, headed by Lambert Simnel, who personated the Earl of Warwick, son of Clarence. He was defeated at Stoke by Earl of Oxford, captured and placed in king's kitchen. Second rebellion, headed by Perkin Warbeck, 1495, personated Richard, Duke of York. Sought help of France and Flanders, but was refused. At length went to Scotland, helped by James IV., but thrown off again. Joined the Cornish rebellion, and defeated at Taunton. Imprisoned and executed 1499.
PROCEDURE. III. Association.
I. Introduce lessons by questions on the descent of Henry VII. What was the last battle of the Wars of the Roses ? Give date. Who was crowned on battlefield ? Refer to descent of Henry from Henry V.'s widow ; also from John of Gaunt. Why was Henry's title weak ? What led the people to accept him ? In the ordinary course of things who ought to succeed a king ? Where were Edward IV.'s sons? Who had the next right? What had become of George Duke of Clarence ? His son ? Edward Earl of Warwick was alive, and Henry, knowing how popular the Yorkists were, had him confined in the Tower. From what we have said, is there any reason why Henry did not feel secure on his throne ? (Elicit three reasons.) Did he try to please the Yorkists, and how ? What had he to fear ? (C/. other sovereigns in same condition.) What did he do with the real heir ? and as result what took place in his reign ? (Recapitulate three causes, and write on blackboard.)
Rebellions in the Reign of Henry VII. 73
II i. (a) The first rebellion was in favour of Lambert Simnel, who personated the real heir. Who was the real heir ? Why was he the real heir ? L. S. was really a tool in the hands of Yorkists, because they knew where the real heir was; it was an artifice to test their chances of popularity. In Wars of Roses what people were partial to Yorkists ? What Yorkist leader took refuge in Ireland? What would that nation naturally do now ? He was also joined by Germans, who, with the Irish and Simnel, sailed to England. Why was it easy to prove that Simnel was not Earl of Warwick ? Henry made a point of exhibiting his prisoner in London, so that people might distrust Simnel. Would this news have travelled very quickly to Ireland in those days ? and why not ?
(6) If Simnel personated the real heir, what must have been his object ? Whom were the Yorkists personally against ? It had seemed to them that Henry did not even trust his wife Elizabeth (" The White Rose ") as befitted her position in giving him a greater right to the throne, and they knew that Henry tried to advance his own descent as sufficient.
(c) Relate events as given in matter ; use map to show places, and notice policy of Henry with regard to the coronation of Elizabeth.
2. (a) and (b) Relate account of leader of second rebellion, Perkin Warbeck. Whom he personated. Made up a story about his escape. Why was this story as likely to be credited as the last ? When was the truth about the two princes really known ? How did Henry disprove the last impostor ? Why could he not do anything similar now ? The very personation caused the truth to be confessed by Tyrrel. What effect on the people had this difficulty in disproving the new claimant ?
(c) Warbeck sought help from Irish. How would they receive him ? Why ? Next with French. This led to Treaty of E staples (show on map), 1492. (Explain its terms, etc.) Next with Flanders, where some relatives of Edward IV. still lived. Henry interfered. Result, the Great Inter- course. Why is there such a difference in Henry's dealings
74 Notes on Herbartian Method
with Simnel and Warbeck ? Relate Warbeck's final attempts in Deal and in Ireland. How received ? Scotland. Pro- jected marriage with Catherine Gordon, who always believed in royalty of her husband. James's attitude. His invasion resulting in tax, and rebellion in Cornwall in consequence. Defeat at Taunton. Took sanctuary in Beaulieu Abbey. His end. Whom did he meet in the Tower ? Their escape, and execution in 1499.
IV. "Recapitulation : What were the chief causes of re- bellion in this reign ? Who headed the first insurrection ? Whom did he personate ? Give result of insurrection. How did Henry try to satisfy the people ? What led to the second rebellion ? Whom did Warbeck person-ate ? Where did he seek help ? With what results ? Where was he defeated in the end ?
THE SPANISH ARMADA.
Class — Oxford Juniors. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To stimulate the imagination of the pupils while increasing their know- ledge of and interest in history.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
i. Preliminary ((a) Position of Philip II. of Spain in description of \ Europe.
State of Euro- j (b) Relations between England and pean Politics. { Spain about the time of the Armada. Causes which led to the Armada : i. The murder of Mary Queen of Scots, ii. England opposed Philip's armies in
Causes leading to, and Aim of Philip in, the Armada.
Flanders, iii. Drake had plundered Spanish ships
abroad.
At Pope Sixtus V.'s invita-
^ . j tion to invade England,
seize the kingdom and make it once more Catholic.
The Spanish Armada
II. Presentation.
Spanish.
i. Preparations of the Fleets: the \ Two Fleets.
2. Plan of attack.
^136 large galleons and gal-
liasses. 2o,ooosoldiers,besides 8,000
sailors and 2,000 oars- men. 2,000 cannon and all kinds
of weapons. Preparations for invasion,
and war on land. Comma nde r — Duke of
Medina-Sidonia. Duke of Parma in Flanders
at head of a large army. Fleet took three years to \ prepare.
^hirty small vessels — soon
increased to 180 light
merchant crafts. About 17,000 men. Commander - in - chief —
Howard of Effingham. Other noted Officers -
Drake, Hawkins and
Frobisher. Allies— the Dutch fleet.
'(a) Sail through the Channel.
(b) Unite with Parma's forces in
Flanders.
(c) Combined forces attack English
and advance to London. (<7) Depose Elizabeth and place Philip on the throne.
English.
76
Notes on Herbartian Method
3. Chief events.
|
i. Spanish fleet damaged |
|
|
in a storm — delay. |
|
|
(a) Before |
ii. Appears in Channel in |
|
reaching the * |
form of crescent seven |
|
Channel. |
miles wide. |
|
iii. Scene on the Hoe at |
|
|
Plymouth. |
|
|
' i. English let fleet pass, |
|
|
then harassed their |
|
|
rear. |
|
|
ii. Small fight offPortland. |
|
|
iii. Great losses to Span- |
|
|
(b) During I . \ |
iards off Gravelines. |
|
attack. |
iv. Anchored at Calais. |
|
v. Parma's forces block- |
|
|
aded by Dutch Protes- |
|
|
tants. |
|
|
vi. Fireships complete the |
|
|
^ defeat. |
|
|
i. Oquendo's ship — and |
|
|
the gunner. |
|
|
ii. Pedro de Valdez' sur- |
|
|
(c) Incidents connected |
render, iii. The Biscay Galleon — |
|
with at- |
not surrender. |
|
tack. |
iv. The St. Ann duel with |
|
Hawkins — Spanish |
|
|
unfair play. |
|
|
v. Dutch plunder of Span- |
|
|
k ish galleon. |
|
|
i. General confusion - |
|
|
between 4,000 and |
|
|
(d) After attack. |
5,000 killed, ii. Whole Spanish fleet |
|
scattered — many of |
|
|
largest ships sunk or |
|
|
. |
captured. |
The Spanish Armada
77
3. Chief events.
/iii. Remainder sailed round Scotland and Ireland, pursued by English as far as Scotland. (d) After Shattered by the
attack. storms.
iv. Only fifty-three reached Spain after two months' struggle with \ the elements.
III. Assimilation.
(i. To the power of Spain on sea. 2. To the power of England on sea. 3. To the cause of Catholicism at home and abroad.
IV. Association.
1. Compare Philip II. with Napoleon.
2. Contrast modern warships with those of Spain and
England in the sixteenth century.
3. Refer to the late Spanish - American War, and
point to the similar causes of failure of the Spaniards.
V. Recapitulation
Of chief points of the matter.
Map of Europe.
Picture of the Armada, and incidents connected with it.
(a) Elizabeth at Tilbury Fort.
(b) Scene on the Hoe at Ply-
mouth.
(c) The defeat of the Armada.
(d) Drake on board the Revenge. Sketch of a Spanish galleon, and
English merchant ship.
Illustrations.
Note. — This lesson might with profit be given in two parts (about half an hour each) ; it is written as one lesson to preserve continuity of form.
78 Notes on Herbartian Method
PROCEDURE.
1. i. Refer to history of Europe at this period, and especially to the central figure in this history. Who he was His dominion. How was England related with Spain at this time ? What connection had she in the last reign ? Refer to the Spanish marriage, etc., etc.
2. Lead on to Causes, and draw from class by questions on the history of the times the three main causes. From a re- ligious point of view, what was Philip's aim ? His ideas as regards religion ? Refer to lesson on character. Finally mention Pope Sixtus V.'s attitude. How was the aim viewed in England, and why ?
II. i. Compare preparations of our own times and in the olden times. Why was it necessary to spend three years in preparation ? Relate circumstances connected with Spanish preparations for the " Invincible ". The effect on people. Why ? The mistakes made, etc., and give names of leaders. Use map to show Tagus. Show sketch of Spanish galleon, or draw on blackboard. Compare with modern ships — advantages and disadvantages, etc.
Now we turn to England. Her attitude : hope or fear ? Why ? What about her navy then ? Who lent vessels ? " There came a gallant merchant ship full sail to Plymouth Bay." Commander. What religion ? What does this prove about general attitude of England ? (All creeds com- bined to resist it, and religious struggle for a moment put aside.) Other officers of note. Ask questions to find where we hear of Drake before this. Frobisher and Hawkins. What do we owe to them ? Name allies. Why the Dutch ? What relations had Elizabeth with the Dutch ?
2. Explain plan of attack, and trace on map. Are first plans always successful ? Give some examples where they have been entirely abandoned, and altered. (Cf. Transvaal War.) Who was the Duke of Parma ? Where have we heard of him before ? If the combination had succeeded, would the conquest have been secure ? Why ? What was
The Spanish Armada 79
the immediate object ? And when Philip was on the throne, what then ? Why ? Did the Catholics not seem to wish for Philip ? (Loyalty of English always.)
3. Relate series of mishaps which attended the " In- vincible" from the very outset. (Show photo with ships in form of crescent.) What was the object of this position? Compare Trafalgar. Spanish and French in crescent. Describe scene on Hoe at Plymouth. Show picture of the game, and ask why all were so unconcerned. When fleet appeared it was allowed to pass. Why ? The wind unfavour- able to Spanish but not to English. Why could not English fleet face the crescent ? Describe the various Channel fights : Portland, Gravelines. Anchored at Calais. English success with such smaller crafts. Why ? What about Parma ? Were any in Holland favourable to Elizabeth? Who? They showed this now by blockading Parma's fleet. Result, and final success by means of fireships. To add to interest relate incident mentioned in matter, and draw from class how character of opponents was seen on those occasions.
After attack. What would be result of such a defeat? What was the only route open to returning to Spain With safety ? Give account of the journey round Scotland and Ireland. The wrecks and the relics of the saved who settled on these coasts seen to-day, especially North of Scotland. (Organ and chandelier to be seen in Trinity College, Dublin.) Why were the ships in great danger in coasting these countries north ? Trace journey on map. Only fifty-three ships returned to Spain. Out of how many ?
III. Deduce from class the results of this great victory, first, as regards power of Spain at sea. How would this be affected ? Why ? Has she shown any great power since at sea ? (Late Spanish-American War.) On contrary, what then was the effect on English power at sea ? Name some other naval victories that secured our power at a critical moment. (Camperdown, Trafalgar.) As regards religion, how was the Catholic cause affected ? Why in this way ?
8o Notes on Herbartian Method
IV. Compare Philip II. and Napoleon as to ambition, aims and methods, and success of his enterprises. Which character is to be preferred ? Contrast modern warships with those of sixteenth century. Show pictures of each, and draw from class general advantages of one and disadvantages of the other. As regards bravery and courage, which kind of warfare (modern or old-fashioned) leads to the greatest exercise of these virtues ? Refer again to Spanish-American War, and point to similar causes of failure of Spaniards.
V. Recapitulate chief points of matter, and write principal heads on blackboard — class to reproduce account in their own words in form of an essay.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE PROSPERITY
OF ENGLAND DURING REIGN OF
ELIZABETH.
Class — Age, 16 to 17 years. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To give class an accurate idea of the state of England in Elizabeth's reign.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
A few questions as to the character of the Tudor Sove- reigns in general — powerful rulers, the material prosperity of country necessarily great.
II. Presentation.
i. AGRICULTURE.
(a) Change in mode of cultivation favoured production.
New methods and their conse- quences.
(b) Change, moreover, brought about a
taste for improvement.
(c) This more careful and constant culti-
vation necessitated greater number of hands.
Hence this state of things was a distinct gain to many among labouring classes.
The Prosperity of England during Reign of Elizabeth 81
2. MANUFACTURES.
(a) Woollen manufacture an important
element.
(b) Silk weaving introduced.
(c) Weaving, fulling and dyeing of cloth
spread rapidly over country. Industries and / } Worsted trade> centred at Norwich)
extended over whole of eastern counties.
(e) Iron manufactures in Kent and Sussex for northern towns began to rise.
This development of manufactures gave work to the unemployed.
3. COMMERCE.
((a) Cannot judge of it by any modern standard, for whole population can hardly have exceeded five or six millions.
(b) Most important part with Antwerp
and Bruges.
(c) After siege and ruin of Antwerp by
Duke of Parma supremacy of our own capital first established. One- third of Antwerp merchants and manufacturers took refuge on banks of Thames.
(d) Growth of Boston and Hull marked
an increase of commercial inter- course with North.
(e) Prosperity of Bristol, which depended
in great measure on trade with Ireland, stimulated by colonisation.
(/) Trade with Russia created.
(g) Lucrative traffic with coast of Guinea, to whose gold-dust and ivory the Southampton merchants owed their wealth. 6
Commercial seats and countries •{ traded with.
82 Notes on Herbartian Method
4. SOCIAL.
(a) Conception of domestic comfort takes its rise from this period. Carpets,
silver, pillows in general use. Wealth and Com- | (& Tend to lu and di } f
fort-thechar--
actenstics. I/ \ ^ ,. t_ uur , »•
I (c) Lrreat households fast breaking up.
Whole of feudal economy disappear- ing. 5. ARCHITECTURE.
f(a) Dwellings of brick and stone super-
seded rough wattled farmhouses. (b) Gloomy walls and serried battlements
Characterised by pomp and ele- gance.
disappeared from dwellings of the gentry, strength fast giving way to magnificence and elegance.
) Prodigal use of glass a marked feature.
III. Association.
The procedure and different illustrations used.
IV. Recapitulation. Questions as in procedure.
V. Application.
Class to take down heads of matter and write a short essay on the subject for next lesson.
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by questioning class as to the state of England during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII. with regard to material prosperity. Why was it so prosperous ? Why had it not been so prosperous under the preceding dynasties ?
Point out that during the reign of Elizabeth this pros- perity reached its zenith, not only in one department, but in many.
II. Improvements may be classed under five heads, viz.: Agriculture, Manufactures, Commerce, Social Progress and
The Prosperity of England during Reign of Elizabeth 83
Architecture. Tell how new methods of agriculture were introduced, and draw from class that under these methods the land naturally improved. How would the farmers be affected by seeing the great improvements consequent upon the improved systems ? They were stimulated to greater efforts, and hence was developed in them a taste for improve- ment which resulted in raising the tone of this portion of the people. Draw from class that, as the cultivation of the land became more constant and careful, a greater number of hands were required for the Work. Let class point out who would be" the gainers by this, and show that if this had been the only improvement it would have been much.
As regards manufactures, then, as now, the woollen manu- factures formed a most important element in the national wealth ; but it was confined to the West of England. What is the seat of the woollen manufacture at the present day ? Point out places on the map. Tell how we are indebted to the French for the introduction of silk weaving — to the numerous Huguenot emigrants who settled at Spitalfields. Hitherto England had sent all her fleeces to the Continent to be woven and dyed, but now the weaving, fulling and dyeing were carried on at home, and were spreading rapidly over the country. The worsted trade, which was centred at Norwich, began to spread all over the south-eastern counties, and the farmers' wives began everywhere to spin their wool from their own sheep's backs. What advantage was there in all this ? Women became thrifty and domesticated, and were kept from the miseries of idleness. Then the iron manu- facture was carried on, but was confined to Kent and Sussex. Where is it carried on now ? Why ? Point out that the manufactures were gradually transferred from these counties to the northern towns, and draw from class the consequence of this transference, i.e., that Manchester, York, Halifax, etc., began to rise in importance. What class of people specially profited by this development of manufactures ? The working classes. Show advantage of this, for as long as these were well employed they were guarded against discontent and its
84 Notes on Herbartian Method
consequent evils. Draw from class that commerce was furthered by this development of manufactures. Point out that we cannot judge of it by any modern standards, and why. Most important branch was with Antwerp and Bruges, but after siege of Antwerp many merchants came over and settled on banks of Thames. What was the effect of this?
Boston and Hull then began to grow in importance, and increased in intercourse with North of Europe. Prosperity of Bristol greatly stimulated by colonisation of Ireland, Show Bristol on map, and point out reason for this inter- course— ease of access. Tell of the discovery of Archangel by Richard Chancellor, and let class say what advantages accrued to England from this, i.e., trade with Russia opened up. Besides all this, a lucrative trade with Guinea was begun. Show Guinea on map, and let class say what it is noted for. This trade proved a great source of wealth to the Southampton merchants. Point out the shame that it brought to England by being the cause of the beginning of slave trade, which was not abolished till 1833.
Now to come to social progress. Point out that in some ways it can hardly be considered progress. First notion of domestic comfort, however, takes its rise from this period. Carpets now came into fashion. What had been used hitherto ? Pillows, which had formerly been despised, now came into general use. Use of silver almost general. Some yeomen had quite a fair show of plate. Great tendency towards luxury and display of all kinds. People were be- coming more particular in choice of food, and were not satisfied with the simpler fare of former days. Consumption of wine, too, increasing. Cecil, the Minister, complained that " England spendeth more in wines in one year than it did in ancient times in four". Dress, also, became much more lavish. Queen's robes rivalled by the slashed velvets, ruffs and jewelled doublets of the courtiers. Green says : "Men wore a manor on their backs". Show pictures of the costumes of the period. Draw from class the effect of all this luxury on the character and habits of the
The Prosperity of England during Reign of Elizabeth 85
people. How did Elizabeth look upon these social changes ? Why ?
Increase of wealth influenced the architecture of the time. Rough wattled farmhouses began to give way to dwellings of brick and stone. This served to beautify the towns. Show pictures of mediaeval castles and of Elizabethan archi- tecture, and let class point out wherein the differences lay. Another marked feature was the prodigal use of glass. Long lines of windows stretched across the fronts of the new manor-houses. Draw from class the advantages of this from a physical point of view. The enjoyment of light and sun- shine was a mark of the temper of the age. Lord Bacon on this : " Your houses are so full of glass, that we cannot tell where to come to be out of the sun or the cold ". Here read passage from Green, p. 388 — " Transformation . . . oriel," p. 389. Point out to class Elizabeth's contribution to this development was the peace and order from which it sprang, and the thrift which spared the purses of her sub- jects. She contented herself with the ordinary resources of the Crown.
IV. Recapitulation : Under what heads may we class the progress of the country during Elizabeth's reign ? What benefits were derived from the improved system of agricul- ture ? What were the chief industries, and where were they carried on ? Who were the gainers by this development of manufactures ? Why can we not compare the commerce of the period with that of the present day ? What English towns 'rose in importance? and why? With what foreign countries did England trade ? What were the characteristics of the social life of the period ? What advantages and dis- advantages from this ? What of the architecture ?
86
Notes on Herbartian Method
CHARACTER OF PHILIP II. OF SPAIN (1527-1598).
Class — Oxford Juniors. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To stimulate the imagination of the pupils while increasing their know- ledge of and interest in history.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
i. Refer to class's previous knowledge of him as to — (a) Queen Mary's husband. (6) Author of Armada. (c) Who he was.
II. Presentation.
1. Son of Charles V., Emperor of Austria, grandson of Jane the Mad and Philip the Handsome of Burgundy.
2. Heir to the greatest heritage that Christendom has ever seen.
/ i. To periods of gloom, ii. To extreme religious views bordering
on madness.
iii. To consider himself a "junior part- ner " with Providence in the estab- lishment of an universal supremacy of Catholicism through Spanish \ influence and power.
i. Hereditary tendencies accentuated by his father's constant wars with heretics, ii. Narrow - minded religious views
deeply instilled.
iii. Instructed by his father in politics, taught self-control and distrust of others, to be secret, crafty and over- cautious.
iv. Lost the soft influence of his mother at the age of twelve, hence his cold, \ hard exterior.
(a) Hereditary
Tendencies.
(b) His Training.
Character of Philip II. of Spain
(c) Character as a King. •/-
i. Essentially a statesman, not a
soldier.
ii. His whole career influenced by his conviction of Divine appointment to do the Almighty's work, iii. Hence his depending too entirely on supernatural means and neg- lecting the temporal, iv. His distrust of others and desire of blind obedience from all while he \ ordered every point.
v. His painstaking and laborious attention to details, and no sense of proportion as to their religious importance.
vi. His marble serenity, unmoved in the midst of failure, trusting to the belief that his cause was God's, and therefore must succeed at last, vii. Independent in dealing with the Pope about powers of Inquisition. A dutiful son.
A faithful and affectionate husband to all four wives, under difficult circumstances.
iii. A patient and loving father. (Don Carlos.) His natural character re- veals itself in his family life.
IV. Application. As in procedure.
V. Recapitulation.
Set pupils an essay on foregoing, or, bid them institute a comparison of Spain under Philip, and England under Elizabeth.
PROCEDURE.
III. Association.
I. Lead class by questions to see that Philip in both (a) and (b) was moved by the same ambition and desire to restore Catholicism through the supremacy of Spain.
(d) His Domestic Character.
88 Notes on Herbartian Method
Show that he was regarded as the Champion of the True Faith by reason of his dominions.
(a) Here give his parentage, alluding to his grand- mother's mental state, showing that it passed on to his father after middle age, and his son in youth. What is therefore to be expected in Philip ? Point out what form these hereditary tendencies took in him. His training only strengthened his views. Refer to his father's work at the time — the Reformation just beginning — war on heretics in his dominions. What influence it must have had on Philip.
(6) Describe shortly the character of his early teachers. Narrow-minded devotees, and elicit the effect on him. Also, his mother's death, and falling entirely under his father's control and influence. Describe the kind of training re- ceived from him, relating his advice to him about counsellors when entering on his life as king at sixteen years of age. Mention, in passing, how well he followed it through his whole career, and especially in the Armada.
(c) Deduce that he was a statesman and no soldier, from fact that there is no record of his taking part in any battle during the many wars. Contrast him with Charles I. in idea of Divine appointment, and also favouritism, showing that his independence of latter was logical result of former. Describe, however, his Court policy, and how it affected the government of the kingdom and his popularity. Refer to Philip's policy in England as Mary's husband (moderation). Also, his independence of the Holy See in ecclesiastical affairs and in his rule of Naples, and use of the Inquisition. Instance of Pope's Bulls suppressed in Spain, and the treatment of Carvanza.
(d) Deduce by question in matter already assimilated by the class the points remarkable in the domestic character of this king, and how his natural character shows itself most in his family life.
IV. Application : Draw moral lesson concerning the formation of character. How are we affected by our sur- roundings, our company, and our history ? C/. Napoleon.
V. Recapitulation : As in matter.
The Marian Persecutions
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE MARIAN PERSECUTIONS.
Class — Age, 16 years. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Aim — To lead class to a just and impartial knowledge of the matter and its results to Catholicism in England.
I. Preparation.
Religious changes under Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
MATTER.
, Broke with Rome on i Under I divorce question. Henry VIII. Claimed supremacy.
Suppressed monasteries, [ etc.
Hertford and Council Protestant in sym- pathies.
Cranmer from a bad Catholic drifted into Protestantism. Six Articles repealed, forty - two Articles passed.
r Book of Com- mon Prayer. New Com- munion Ser- vice.
Sweeping Marriage of changes, clergy.
Pictures and images de- stroyed. Altars abo- . lished.
Revolts, e.g., in Devon and Cornwall, put
2. Under Edward VI.
down with severity.
great
Notes on Herbartian Method
II. Presentation.
i. Position of Catholics at Mary's acces- sion.
(a)
Hence In Eng- j divided ,
land. \ into two .; parties.
(b) On the] Continent, j
2.
Political
Factors in-( Matter.
In a state of indecision as to their duty until Council of Trent.
i. Those who admitted the supremacy partly.
ii. Those who refused to take the [ oath.
Church had suffered great pecuniary losses I. under Edward. Catholic Powers of Spain, Austria, France and the Emperor against Germany and Holland.
Emperor sided with Rome and Philip.
His son shared his opinions, and Mary
(a) The Span-J and England were in- ish marriage.^ volved in same.
Meant submission to
Rome. Secured throne for Mary
Queen of Scots.
(b) Wyatt's insurrection. Protestants
in panic.
^Followed the marriage.
(c) Submis- Was made to Cardinal s i o n of Pole, led finally to the Parliament. revival of the Statute
of Heresy.
The Marian Persecutions 91
'(a) Were outcome of misplaced, ill- advised zeal. (6) Were against advice of Cardinal
Pole and many bishops. (c) Were cruel and against true interests
of religion.
The Persecu- | (d) Resulted in great ill-feeling in Eng- tions. land against Catholics. Death of
Ridley and Latimer, etc. (e) Did more than anything else to make Protestants popular since the persecutions were identified with the Spanish Philip against English- men.
III. Association.
See the procedure.
Summary : The religious strife begun under Henry VIII. and Edward VI. led under Mary Tudor to reprisals, and by the Statute of Heresy formerly used against Lollards, many Protestants were tried and condemned to death. In thus acting, Mary, far from advancing the cause she had at heart, really did much harm and roused a hatred of Catholics which still exists.
IV. Recapitulation. Questions as in procedure.
V. Application.
Show how true charity leads us to be tolerant, and con- clude by a few remarks on the evils caused by bigotry.
PROCEDURE.
I. i. Introduce lesson by questioning class as to the claims which Henry made to be Head of the Church, and show them how, by the suppression of the monasteries, many thousands of the poor were left without means either spiritual or temporal. Show how ill-instructed Catholics would not know how to act when time of danger really
g2 Notes on Herbartian Method
came. Discuss the policy of Cromwell, and show how moderate it was, and draw from class the reason of Crom- well's downfall.
2. Begin by questioning class as to Council appointed by Henry VIII. Show its Protestant bent, as was also that of the character of Edward VI. If possible enumerate changes, and write chief on blackboard. Show class how these affected the large class of the uneducated already left without guides since 1536 and 1539. Tell, however, of the popular revolts, and show on map the chief strongholds of the ancient faith. Relate how great and severe measures at the point of the sword were adopted, and describe the period of Protestant misrule which preceded the death of Edward. Elicit from pupils that in such times of disorder men eagerly follow what promises to restore peace and order.
II. i. (a) Illustrate the various opinions held about what was lawful and not lawful as to compliances with regard to the new religion. Get from pupils the names of those who best understood the trend of " Royal Supremacy," i.e., More and Fisher, and even Erasmus, and compare them with Margaret Roper and Gardiner. Illustrate further by the terms Papist and Church Papist the two classes of Catholics.
(b) Show on map of Europe the Catholic Powers, and describe the position of the Emperor Charles and his relation- ship to Philip. If possible, get from class the traditional feeling of Christendom as to the Pope's temporal power. Point out the extent of the Protestant revolt.
2. (a) Lead pupils to see why England was averse to the Spanish marriage, and why the nation preferred it to Mary of Scots, and lead class to see that Scotland was an ancient enemy. Refer to Pinkie.
On the other hand, show how it would involve Mary and England in European politics, and get from class which side she was most likely to take.
(b) Tell how all this led to Wyatt's futile insurrection, and show how this attempt strengthened Mary in her
The Character of James I. of England 93
position. Lead class to see how Mary had some of her father's pure obstinacy, and point out that she was narrow in her views, though otherwise a good woman.
(c) Describe the progress of Cardinal Pole up the Thames, and the events which soon followed.
Refer to the Statute of Heresy; get date when first passed and against whom used. Get other instances of burning, e.g., Joan of Arc.
3. Show that we must not judge those times by the standards of the present century. Ask why not.
Enumerate the Protestant martyrs, and impress on class the injustice of not accepting Cranmer's recantation.
IV. i. What was the most important religious change under Henry VIII. ? 2. Name three political events which greatly influenced Mary and her advisers. 3. Why do we condemn the action of Mary ? 4. What were the Catholic Powers in Europe after the Council of Trent ?
V. Application ; As in matter.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE CHARACTER OF JAMES I. OF ENGLAND.
Class — Average age, 12. Time — Half an hour. Previous Know- ledge— Principal events of his reign. Aim — To lead class to draw con- clusions from facts and events by eliciting character of James I.
I. Preparation.
State of England on death of Elizabeth, the last of the Tudors.
MATTER.
Great prosperity with regard to com- merce and social life.
Religion in a disturbed state, three- fourths Puritans. Catholics hoping for better things under James I.
94
Notes on Herbartian Method
II. Presentation.
Principal faults in James's character and the events which called them forth.
X
bb
i. Vanity and conceit in his own
wisdom.
ii. Weak-mindedness. ii. Duplicity. iv. Obstinacy.
i. Tyranny, seen in his dealings with his Parliament.
ii. Prodigality.
iii. Favouritism, shown in his treat- ment of Buckingham.
James's failure due in great part to the tyranny of his predecessors, the Tudors.
-As a king he is devoid of good qualities, but as a man he possesses the following: —
(a) Just in his intentions. (6) Love of learning. .(c) Humour.
III. Association.
Compare James with Edward II. Both were addicted to favouritism and tyranny. With Richard II. ; both being worthless sons of good parents.
IV. Recapitulation
Of points in his character, both good and bad.
V. Application.
As James had suffered from the despotism of the Tudors, so Charles I. was to suffer the effects of his father's mis- government. Here say a word about considering our actions in the light of their consequences to others. Mention the Reformation, etc.
2. Good points in his character.
PROCEDURE.
I. Question class on the state of England on the death of Elizabeth. Why was the nation so prosperous ? What was the state of the country as regards religion ? What were the Catholics expecting ? Why ?
The Character of James I. of England 95
II. i. Let us see now whether James was the kind of man to answer their expectations. We shall consider him under two aspects: (a) That of a man; (b) That of a king.
(a) James was very learned, and in consequence of this fell into a fault to which learned people are often liable. He was vain, and did not turn his knowledge to account. Henry IV. of France called him the wisest fool in Christendom.
i. Vanity, then, is one point in his character.
You remember how James allowed himself to be led by his favourites. Who was the chief among these ? Now what would you say of a man that allows himself to be led so easily by others, particularly when they are bad advisers ? That he is weak.
ii. Weak-mindedness was James's second defect.
Before he came to the throne he promised the Catholics toleration, and then he broke his promise. What do you say of people who say one thing and mean another ?
iii. Hypocrisy or duplicity his third fault.
Last of all, how did he accept the advice given him by the Parliament ? Why would he not listen to it ? What fault is that, to refuse to listen to good advice because we think we know better ?
iv. Obstinacy his fourth fault.
(b) Then elicit his faults as a king.
1. Tyranny, in refusing to listen to the just demands of Parliament.
ii. Prodigality, shown in his expenditure.
iii. Favouritism.
James was not wholly to blame for his failure in govern- ment. He came at a difficult time. What sort of rulers were the Tudors ? Tyrannical, therefore inclined the people to discontent and risings.
2. Like every one else, James was not without his good points. His intentions were just, but he did not carry them out. Show class that it is not sufficient to mean well. Then he loved learning, which is a good point, and he was very good-humoured.
96 Notes on Herbartian Method
III. Now let us see if James is like any other king we know. What other king was ruled by favourites and tyrannised over his subjects ? Edward II. He also resembles Richard II. in being the bad son of good parents.
IV. What points of character does James display as king? How does he show his vanity? His obstinacy ? Why is he not wholly to blame ? With what kings may he be compared ?
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE CIVIL WAR IN REIGN OF CHARLES I.
Class— Age, 16 years. Time — Forty minutes. Aim — To exercise imagination of class in following fortunes of Charles during the Civil War.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
Refer to Charles's Parliament and the mind of the nation after suffering so many wrongs.
fOne carried on between two parties of
Meaning of civil war.
II. Presentation.
i. Cause of war.
the same nation. In this case one
party king.
siding with, other against,
2. Leaders.
Ii. Tyranny of Tudors. ii. Misgovernment of James I. iii. Incapacity of Charles.
Refusal of Charles to give (b) Immediate up all armed forces
cause. to the control of Par-
liament. .
(Royalists — Charles and his nephew, Prince Rupert. Parliament — Earl of Essex, Cromwell, John Hampden.
The Civil War in Reign of Charles I. 97
Ob'ect /^° ta^e ^rom Charles the power of which he
(^ made such bad use. ((a) Edgehill, 1642 ; favourable to Charles.
(b) Brentford, 1642; gained by Parliament.
(c) Chalgrove, 1643 ; gained by Royalists.
(d) Stratton, 1643 '» gained by Royalists.
(e) Atherton Moor, 1643 ; gained by Royalists. (/) Lansdown, 1643 ; gained by Royalists.
to /
<u (
(g) Roundaway Down, 1643 ; gained by Royalists. (h) Newbury, 1643 ; gained by Parliament. . (i) Cropredy Bridge, 1644; indecisive.
(j) Marston Moor, 1644; gained by Parliament. (k) Naseby, 1645 ; gained by Parliament. (/) Tippermuir, 1644; gained by Royalists.
) Philiphaugh, 1645 ; gained by Parliament. Charles gives himself up to Scotch Parliament. R . J Royal power totally destroyed. ^King taken prisoner.
III. Association.
Compare with Wars of Roses as to : —
(a) Cause.
(b) People engaged.
(c) Results.
IV. Recapitulation. Question as in procedure.
V. Application.
Map to be drawn by class marking districts which were for the king and those which were for the Parliament, and writing a short account of causes and results of the war.
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by a few questions on the Parliaments, and draw from class that the result of all Charles's injustice was a feeling of great indignation amongst his subjects. Looking back in history, what have we seen to be the result of oppression ? Get examples from class : Barons' War,
7
98 Nbtes on Herbartian Method
Wat Tyler's Insurrection, Pilgrimage of Grace, Ket's Rebellion. Human nature had not changed, therefore Charles's conduct brought about same results, rebellion in the hope of obtaining better things. What do we call a rebellion where two parties of a nation are at variance ?
II. Draw from class the causes that had led up to the war. What act on part of Charles was the immediate cause of war? Point out reason why nation feared to leave Charles in possession of the army, viz., that he would use it for his own purposes. Point out which class of the nation sided with Charles, viz., chiefly the nobles and aristocracy and the Catholics. Show reasons of this : (i) The middle classes had grievances on the subject of religion— greater part Puritans, who objected to the king's innovations. (2) These also resented more than others anything which interfered with their privileges. (3) The middle classes, too, knew Charles only as the tyrannical king, while the nobles and aristocracy knew more of him personally, and so could ap- preciate his good qualities. Tell of the loyalty of the Uni- versities. St. John's College stripped its roof of the lead to make bullets for the king. Catholics sold their plate. Tell of Basing House called " Loyalty Castle". War began in 1642, the leaders being Charles and his nephew on one side, and Earl of Essex, John Hampden and Cromwell on other. Mark on sketch-map districts held by each party at the beginning of war; put in Edgehill as scene of the opening battle. In beginning of war Charles generally victorious. Draw from class the reason of this, i.e., army of Parliamentarians com- posed chiefly of merchants and those unaccustomed to arms. Cavaliers, on contrary, skilled in horsemanship. Difficult to say how it would have turned out had not Cromwell seen necessity of training his " Ironsides". First appearance of these at Marston Moor, where Charles sustained a crushing defeat. Mark battles on sketch-map as lesson proceeds. Surrender of Charles to army after Naseby, 1645. War resulted in total defeat of king, and his capture.
III. Compare with the Civil Wars of the Roses, and draw from class how the Transvaal War differed from those.
The Battle of Marston Moor 99
Summary : Charles's tyranny and his refusal to give up the command of the army led to the Civil War in 1642. The nobles and aristocracy for the most part sided with the king, whilst the middle classes were against him. First battle fought at Edgehill, 1642 — indecisive, yet somewhat favourable to the king. In the beginning king's army was successful, because better trained and disciplined than that of Parliamentarians'. Cromwell perceived reason of king's success, and trained his Ironsides, whom he first used at Marston Moor, 1644, with disastrous results to the king and Royalist cause. Several battles fought with varying success until that of Naseby, 1645, after which Charles surrendered to Scotch army. This closed first period of the war.
IV. What paved the way for the Civil War ? What was the immediate cause ? What was the object of the war ? Who were the two parties engaged ? Why was Charles successful at the outset ? Who discovered the secret of his success ? What use did Cromwell make of this knowledge ? What was the result of this training of the Parliamentary army ? What battle closes the first period of Civil War ?
V. Application : As in matter.
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE BATTLE OF MARSTON MOOR.
Class — Average age, 15. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Previous Knowledge — Outlines of Civil War. Aim — To exercise imagination of the class, and make them interested in the successes and failures at Marston Moor.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
fRoyalists held North, West and South- i. Progress of the! west.
war in 1644. 1 1ronsides formed in East, ICharles at Oxford.
100
Notes on Herbartian Method
i. Immediate cause of battle.
2. Opposing forces. <[
II. Presentation.
.(a) York under Glemham and 1 XT T rv ' XT .IN. Leven.
Newcastle hard pressed >c ^ . f , r> , . . [S. Fairfax.
by Parliamentarians. J
(b) Charles's message to Rupert, " Save
York, and fight at all costs ".
(c) Siege abandoned and Parliamen-
tarian troops march west to bar the way of relief force.
Cavaliers, ( Rupert, 8,000 horse, " God and thej 10,000 foot ; O'Neil, King ". I Newcastle, Goring.
f Manchester's 1 1ronsides.
RoundheadsJ ^ /Scotch- Leven s army.
^Fairfax, father and son.
Plan of b ttl /Position of forces near, only ditch and \ road between.
Advantages :
(a) Rye-field on rising ground.
(b) Ditch in front.
(c) Royalists more cavalry.
(d) Parliamentarians more infantry.
'(a) Three till five, desultory firing. Corporal in Royalist army slain by first shot. Frequent rainstorms.
(b) Six o'clock, consultation ; agreed to retire.
(c) Attack suddenly begun by the Parliamentarians.
Nephew of Cromwell killed.
(d) Meeting of Cromwell's and Rupert's forces. Crom- well wounded. Retreat of Rupert.
(e) O'Neil repulsed. Newcastle roused.
(/) Fairfax chased Goring to York; "White Coats"
routed rest of Fairfax's army. (g) Scotch regiments fled under Leven. (h) Manchester ran away, but returned. (i) Final rout by Cromwell. Royalists fled to York. \ 4,000 dead lay on field.
The Battle of Marsion Moot
roi
5. Result.
'Royalist cause lost in North.
(Roy*
I Flight of Newcastle ; loss of 100 colours. | Surrender of York and Newcastle. [Turning point in Civil War.
'•;.:; V"^/^.*"'^' MAR S TON
BATTLE Of
MARSTON MOOR
Jidy 2*d 1644
CNCLISH MILES
o j \ !
•n Royalist.
I I Parliojnentcary .
MOOR
III. Association.
Illustrations.
{Map of England, showing strength of opposing parties in 1643. Pictures of relics of the battlefield ; style of armour, and arms in use.
Contrast war of 1644 with Boer< War as to
Command of forces.
( swords, Arms, method of fightings guns,
^cannon.
f uniform, Condition of army | armour<
iCommissariat.
TO2 Notes 07 1 Hcrbartian Method
What were the immediate causes of this battle ? The forces engaged ? The chief leaders ? What action saved the Parliamentarians ? What act was fatal to Royalists ? Who was against fighting and who for it ? Why is this called the battle of " Runaway Generals " ? Who showed special bravery ? Who came out best after the battle ?
What were its final results ? In how many ways may we compare the warfare with that of the Boer War ? etc.
PROCEDURE.
I. Question class as to conditions of opposite parties in the Civil War. What parties were gaining ? Why ? Did the Parliamentarians realise their weakness ? Who determined to overcome the difficulty ? (Show map to ex- plain how much of country still held by Royalists.) What victories were already won by Charles ? Who were leaders on his side ? on opposite side ? By 1644 where was Charles's great stronghold ? At this time Charles was at Oxford.
II. i. Tell of success of Ironsides in East, Lincolnshire, etc. Advance of Scotch in North, and progress of Rupert in West : hence position at York dangerous. Message of Charles to Rupert. Hesitation of Parliamentarians and final resolve to abandon siege and cut off relieving force under Rupert. Result — meeting at Marston Moor.
2 and 3. Draw plan, completing it during course of lesson, and describe opposing forces ; tell of dispute between Rupert and Newcastle and its issue, also retreat of Manchester's army and its recall on seeing movement of Rupert.
From position and plan deduce advantages and dis- advantages to each side.
Compare Hastings and Agincourt with regard to hill. Number of cavalry (these regiments originated in the Civil War). Number of forces on each side not always a test of result (Boers in Transvaal War).
4. Course of Battle. — Describe weather, etc., time of beginning, unsettled state of forces on each side. Final agreement to retire — Newcastle to bed and Rupert to dinner ! Sudden attack on part of Parliamentarians. First shot Sir
The Career of Oliver Cromwell 103
John Houghton and Cromwell's nephew wounded. Retreat of Rupert. Newcastle roused. Action on right wing, Goring chased to York ; reaction on part of White Coats.
Scotch regiments fled under Leven. Manchester fled, but returned. Action of Cromwell saved the day. Royalists fled to York by Micklegate Bar. Four thousand dead on field : ex- cavations in 1858 and 1859 prove the amount of carnage, etc.
5. What was result to Royalists ? to Parliamentarians ? Which general came out best after battle ? What had Newcastle done? White Coats ? etc.
Here note name of battle : " Runaway Generals".
Causes of Failure. — What would disunion on one side lead to ? Would position of forces help on results ? Which side had greater advantage ? Compare method nowadays of supreme commander-in-chief, who regulates major tactics, and generals the minor tactics. Compare General Duller and Transvaal War.
III. Association. — Show illustrations and compare with Transvaal War as to : —
Command of Forces. — " Union makes strength " — one commander-in-chief. In former times bravery of one often lost battle, as in present case.
Arms. — Heavy armour a hindrance ; pistols, not many guns ; often hand-to-hand fight, and now Gatling guns, 15- pounders, etc. So much ammunition to kill one man, as seen from statistics of Crimean War.
Condition of Soldiers. — 111 fed and badly paid, depended much on energy of commander. In modern times, compare transit of supplies to the Transvaal and likeness between Boers and Parliamentarians. Want of provisions obliged a retreat
NOTES OF A LESSON ON THE CAREER OF OLIVER CROMWELL.
Class — Oxford Preliminary. Time — Half an hour. Previous Know- ledge— Civil War and the Commonwealth. Aim — To lead class to an appreciation of the man by following him in the different stages of his career.
MATTER. I. Preparation.
Question class on what they already know of Cromwell.
IO4
Notes on Herbartian Method
II. Presentation.
C Son of Robert Cromwell, a gentleman Birth and Paren- 1 of Huntingdonshire, said to be qon-
tage. 1 nected with House of Stuart.
Born 1599.
Educated at first at a school at Hunt- ingdon. Early Education. J Later on at Cambridge, whence he was
recalled by the death of his father. I Settled on his estate.
f i. Elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628. Did not take an active part in its proceedings, though he opposed Charles's scheme for draining the Fens.
2. In 1640 elected member for Cam-
bridge, and soon showed himself to be on the Parliamentary side.
3. Civil War being declared, Cromwell
threw himself heart and soul into it. Parliamentarians at first un- successful. Cromwell sees reason, and remedies it.
4. Victory over Charles at Marston
Moor ; beginning of his fame.
5. Created Lieutenant-General of Par-
liamentary forces, which he re- organised.
6. Defeats Charles at Newbury and
Naseby, 1645.
7. Appointed Lord-Governor of Ireland.
8. Proclaimed Lord - Protector of the
Commonwealth, 1653.
9. Quelled insurrection in Ireland.
10. Engaged in a war with Spain, in
which he was victorious.
Public Career.
The Career of Oliver Cromwell
105
Closing years.
Ch aracter.
For a year or two before his death his
health began to fail. One of his last acts was to dissolve the
Parliament, and before he could
summon another, health gave way
owing to care and anxiety. Died
1658, on the anniversary day of
two great victories. ( Cruel, shown by his ruthless massacres
in Ireland. Unscrupulous, shown in his treatment
of the king. Narrow-minded in his application of
everything to religion. Tyrannical, shown in his treatment of
the Parliament.
Ambitious of power. Superstitious. Great decision and energy of character,
shown in his discipline of army. In domestic life a good husband and
father.
III. Association.
Compare him with Thomas Cromwell, so as to make class distinguish between the two.
IV. Recapitulation.
Question on heads of matter.
V. Application.
Show that Cromwell desired power, and succeeded in obtaining it. It did not, however, bring him happiness. Power does not always mean content, especially if unlawfully acquired.
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by a few questions on what the class know already of Cromwell. Draw from class that he is a very important character in history ; but for him the fortunes of England might have been different from what they are.
106 Notes on Herbartian Method
II. He was born in 1599. Here notice his 3ooth anni- versary. Son of a Huntingdonshire gentleman, said to be connected with the House of Stuart. Early education carried on at a school in Huntingdon ; later on sent to Cam- bridge, etc. Public career begins with his election as member for Huntingdon in 1628. Connect this date with Charles's third Parliament and the Petition of Right. Do we hear anything of him in connection with this third Parliament ? Why not ? Because it was his first election, and he was still a young man. However, mention is made of his opposing Charles's scheme for draining the Fens. Draw from class what draining the Fens would entail, and why Cromwell opposed it. In 1640 he was elected member for Cambridge. What Parliament was this ? What was the great work of this Parliament ? Presented the " Grand Remonstrance " and conducted the trial of Charles. Cromwell showed him- self to be on the Parliamentary side, one reason for this being his religious opinions, which were very Puritanical. Civil War declared in 1642. Cromwell threw himself heart and soul into it. Draw from class where the successes lay in the beginning of the war. Why was this ? Who would be the first to see cause of this success ? What did he set himself to do ? What was the consequence of this superior training ? At what battle did the Ironsides first distinguish themselves ? Draw from class the effect of this great victory on Cromwell's career.
After victory at Marston Moor he was created lieutenant- general of the Parliamentary forces. Tell class how he proposed the passing of the Self-Denying Ordinance for the purpose of excluding from the army such incompetent com- manders as Essex. Remodelled army, which met and de- feated Charles at Newbury and Naseby, 1645. Charles imprisoned ; in 1649 trial conducted and sentence passed, Cromwell being one of the judges. On very day of execution a Council of State was appointed to carry on the govern- ment, and England was declared a Commonwealth. Draw from class that this was not pleasing to the nation, whose idea was a constitutional government, therefore confidence
The Career of Oliver Cromwell 107
in Cromwell began to decline. Power of the Government rested on the terror inspired by Cromwell. Tell class how, on king's death, Ireland declared in favour of the Prince of Wales, and draw from them the effect this would have on Cromwell. Tell of his behaviour in Ireland, and how he earned the hatred of the nation by his barbarous cruelty. Scotch likewise took up arms for Charles II., but Cromwell defeated them at Dunbar, 1650. A Scotch army invaded England, but was defeated at Worcester, 1651. Describe his dealings with the Long Parliament, which he finally expelled, and chose another, which was a failure, and finally resigned its powers to Cromwell. Then he became Lord- Protector and drew up " Instrument of Government," by which he provided that Parliament should be called every three years : to consist of 400 members for England, 30 for Scotland, and 30 for Ireland, and Catholics should be debarred from voting. Tell of his first Parliament, 1654. Draw from class how this Parliament disapproved of his absolute rule, whereupon Cromwell adopted Charles's plan of ruling without a Parliament. Point out his inconsistency in mak- ing use of the very plan he had so loudly condemned in the king. If not very popular at home, he was very successful abroad. Went to war with Spain to secure for England undisturbed trade with America, 1656. Called his second Parliament, and excluded 100 members. Remainder pressed him to take title of king, which he refused. Why ? In 1658 a fever, brought on by anxiety and the cares of government, end-ed fatally. Draw from class what his closing years must have been. His acts of cruelty had made him many enemies, lived in constant fear of assassination, slept with loaded pistol under his pillow, haunted with superstitions owing to his guilty conscience. Died on his birthday, 3rd September, 1658, which was the anniversary of his two great victories of Dunbar and Worcester.
Draw from class his character : (i) His cruelty from his treatment of the Irish. Tell incident of his setting fire to church. (2) His unscrupulosity, shown in his treatment of the king. His words, " If I met the king in battle, I would
io8 Notes on Herbartian Method
fire at him as at another". (3) His narrow-mindedness in wishing to enforce his Puritan notions on every one. (4) His tyranny, shown in his harsh rule on the declaration of the Commonwealth. (5) His ambition of power, shown in his dealings with those who opposed him.
Describe his appearance : Plain and awkward, usually dirty in his attire ; a great contrast to Charles, with his refined manners.
Draw from class his good points : Energy and decision of character, shown in his disciplining of his army. Love of country, though perhaps not unmixed with selfishness. Taught the people to know their power, and caused name of England to be respected abroad. In his private life a good husband and father.
III. Association.
Draw from class that, though Cromwell succeeded in acquiring power, it did not make him happy, because not lawfully acquired.
IV. Recapitulation : When may Cromwell's public career be said to begin ? Why did the battle of Marston Moor bring him into public favour? How did he treat the Irish and Scotch ? With what result ? What does this reveal to us of his character ? What were the good points in his character ?
LESSON ON THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON
(1665).
Class — Oxford Junior. Time — Three-quarters of an hour. Previous Knowledge — Great Plague. Illustrations — Picture of Old London ; map to show part covered by fire. Aim — To exercise imagination of the class and interest them in the account of the Great Fire,
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
i. Question class on state of London at this period, Causes which made it unhealthy.
The Great Fire of London (1665)
109
2. Causes Fire.
2. Compare slums of East London to-day and part called Old London.
3. Great Plague — its spread and destruction of 100,000 victims.
II. Presentation.
i. People just beginning to recover from shock of plague when fire broke out.
i(a) Outbreak in baker's shop, Pudding Lane. (b) Spread owing to wooden houses.
f(a) Flickering light seen over tops of houses.
(b) Feeble fire-engines of day.
(c) Increase of fire caused by wind.
(d) Panic of people. Church attacked.
(e) No need for rumour, fire announced
itself.
(/) State of streets, fleeing families.
(g) 100 churches in ashes, 400 streets.
(h) Ordinary means useless, extraordi- nary resorted to. Raged four days, finally spent itself.
r Attributed to Catholics. Why? Cf. Nero. Inscription on Monument (name of station now). Pope says of it :—
" Where London's column pointing to the skies Like a tall bully lifts its head and lies ".
^s* ( Loss of fortune to many. § 1 Ruin and starvation.
3. Description.
Rumours as to Origin.
5. Results. 4
Rebuilding of streets.
A blessing in disguise.
'Id' <r f Two years toclearaway.
| Original sites found, erects, i .
v Bricks used again.
Cleared away plague. Sanitary conditions improved. Generosity of Lord Mayor.
no Notes on Herbartian Method
III. Association.
Compare Fire of London with that of Moscow. Con trast causes, effects and results as affecting the fortunes ot England.
IV. Application.
A word on the great results that often spring from small causes, and events that often look like calamities are in reality blessings.
" There is some soul of goodness in things evil, would men but observingly distil it out." — Shakespeare.
V. Recapitulation.
Question on matter in points given ; sketch outline on blackboard, as foundation for class to write an essay as home-work.
PROCEDURE.
I. Introduce lesson by questions on period. Who was reigning ? What great calamity had taken place ? What led to it ? What was the state of London at this time ? Compare with London of to-day. Is there any part still in a similar state ? Old London. Show picture, and draw from class reasons for dire results. Question on Great Plague and the terrible destruction which it caused.
II. i and 2. Inhabitants just beginning to recover from this shock when the fire broke out. Began in a baker's shop in Pudding Lane. (Show position on map of London of to-day.) Why would houses burn easily ? Why would fire be more liable to spread then ? Cf. fires of to-day, speedily put out, and checked by material of buildings very often.
3. Here describe the fire as given by many historians. The appearance. Its increase by wind. The panic of people and the spread of the rumour. The streets of flame. The roaring of fire. The cries of the terrified multitude. Refer to fact that such occasions bring out true human nature in its worst and best sense. Cf. accounts of shipwrecks, where heroes and heroines are first discovered. Church attacked, The result. Means taken to stop it. Why
The Great Fire of London (1665) In
very feeble. Cf. engine of to-day. Let class suggest from cause of spread the only means of stopping it. Destroying the buildings to make a gap between flames. Slight success obtained. Fire continued for four days, and then spent itself. Picture the scene when all was over — the destruction, the loss of property, life, etc.
4. Then when all was quieting down again the usual question arose. What is this question ? What does it lead to ? (Rumour.) Who were held in disrepute at this time ? Cf. Nero and Christians. Why could they not clear them- selves ? For how long had they been held in abhorrence ? Refer to Monument, its appearance, where it stands, etc. Now a railway-station. The inscription, and Pope's lines about it. (Part of this was erased in late years.) What is general opinion now ? Cf. Gunpowder Plot and modern ideas since State Papers have been open to the public.
Results. — Bad : Question class on loss to people in way of money. Fortune. Business. What part of city was it ? What sort of people lived there ? Can we see traces of it to-day in the way of good results ? What had led to the plague ? How could this be remedied now ? Was it ? Relate how it took two years to clear away rubbish from original sites of buildings, and some streets found and rebuilt. Some of old bricks used again. Result is city of to-day. St. Paul's rebuilt. Refer to generosity of mayor at the time, etc., and lead class to see that it really was a " blessing in disguise ".
III. Compare with other great fires in cause and results. Moscow. What were some of great differences ? But results to England.
IV. Close by drawing a lesson on the great results from little things in cases of both good and bad. Cf. origin of Penny Post, one kind act, etc. Ask class to quote some lines which teach us to find good in everything. Refer to stories which are founded on the Fire of London (Henty, etc., etc.).
V. Recapitulate and question on points given in matter, and set class, as home-work, to write an essay on subject.
1 1 2 Notes on Herbartian Method
LESSON ON THE PURITANS.
Class — Oxford Junior Grade. Time — Half an hour. Previous. Knowledge — General outline of Tudor period. Aim — To impart accurate knowledge of the character of a sect which characterised England for so long.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
/Henry VIII.
Previous Religious] Edward VI. Changes. 1 Mary.
(Elizabeth.
II. Presentation.
I (a) Popular party in sixteenth and seven- teenth century. (b) Champions of religious liberty who desired purer doctrine: hence name. I (a) Private judgment. (b) Church not State should reform. (c) Reaction from the Marian persecu- tion. '(a) Holy Scripture guide in doctrine.
(b) Use of surplice, ring in marriage,
sign of Cross, kneeling.
(c) No external ceremonies, all internal. 4. Their History : —
r,,. , ±1 rBrownists to Amsterdam on account of
Elizabeth. {
persecution.
( Ask for freedom ; 1,000 clergymen.
y antes I. J Result: emigration of PILGRIM FATHERS,
^ 1620.
(Persecuted by Laud. rCromwell and Parliamentary side. { Ironsides>
20,000 Puritans in ten years left on account of persecu- tions and prosperity in the Colonies.
~ ,,, f Character lost between Independents and
Commonwealth. \
Presbyterians.
Tenets.
The Puritans 113
III. Association.
Compare with Lollards, difference of history on account of the temper of the people of England at the time.
IV. Application.
(i. Manners and customs.
Their Influence. \ 2' Literature and stage. 3. Commerce. [4. History.
V. Recapitulation.
Summarise with points on blackboard, and question as to who the Puritans were. How they arose. Their doctrine. Their history during four reigns, and their influence on the times.
PROCEDURE AND QUESTIONS.
1. Begin lesson by reference to religious changes of Henry VIII. Cause of first great change. Original in- tention of first Reformers. In what sense did the Church need reform ? Note tendency in all such cases to excess of zeal. Refer to Edward VI. and his advisers. The Book of Common Prayer. Was his father really a Protestant? Catholics and Protestants suffering side by side in his reign. What was the cause of this confusion ? Finally, relate the bad effect of Marian persecution, the reaction of which led to a further excess of reform. The outcome was Puritanism.
II. i. Who they were. Their idea of purer reform: hence name. Religion brought into everything, even their dress. Ask pupils name of some sects now who carry zeal to same extent. What was the attitude of people's minds towards interpretation of Scriptures ? What would this naturally lead to ? What is teaching of Catholic Church on this point ?
2. What is the outcome of private judgment to-day ? (Over 400 sects in England !) Relate the Puritan idea of reform, and how the Marian persecution had led up to this.
8
114 Notes on Herbartian Method
3. Doctrine guided by Holy Scripture. All outward signs done away with. (Here relate ceremonies, etc., which were abolished.) Refer to Catholic doctrine in this respect. Why externals necessary ? Man made up of soul and body — one reacts on the other, even in all our passions, e.g., outward signs of anger, etc., therefore necessary in religion, but of no value without internal sentiment. Ex. : Genu- flexion, etc., in church. (Show illustration of costume, etc., of Puritans.)
4. Draw from class, by questions on period, the history of Puritans, beginning with Elizabeth. How they were persecuted. The emigration, resulting in foundation of our American colonies. Mayflower. They did so much good, and founded New England. James I.'s attitude. How did this coincide with his character ? Charles I. Who was his great adviser? His attitude towards Puritans. Refer to Civil War. What celebrated army was raised at this time ? What was the foundation of Cromwell's success with Ironsides ? (Fight for religion.) Cf. the Boers. (Give some details about Ironsides, and show illustrations if possible.)
Do we hear much of Puritans after Commonwealth ? What sects arose then ? Puritan character lost between Independents and Presbyterians.
III. Association: As in matter.
IV. Recapitulate history briefly. Draw from class their influence on manners and customs. Why would these be so affected ? Lead on to literature and stage. Who is the great Puritan poet ? On what subjects did he write ? The emigration would lead to progress. In what way ? What good results have we now of the New England colonies ? In what way have the Puritans influenced our history ?
V. Recapitulate points in matter, and ask questions as given in matter; and, finally, contrast Quakers and Salvation Army, etc., of our own day with the Puritans,
Monmouth' s Rebellion 115
NOTES OF A LESSON ON MONMOUTH'S REBELLION.
Class — Average age, 13. Time — Forty minutes. Aim — To exetcise imagination and give class clear idea of the unsettled state of James II. 's reign.
MATTER.
I. Preparation.
A word or two on James II.'s religious opinions and how he behaved when he came to the throne.
II. Presentation.
r T [Opportunity afforded to rebellious spirits
i. Cause of Insur- • r •
through the general dissatisfaction rection. .. .
of people at James s religious views.
"To place on the throne Monmouth, who „ . had become very popular owing to
his personal attractions and gener- ous disposition.
( (a) Earl of Argyll. 3. Leaders. ...SJ
\(b) Duke of Monmouth.
'(a) Argyll kindled rebellion in Scotland.